The Carnatic Wars (First, Second, Third ) - 1 | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction to Carnatic Wars

• The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the mid-18th century in India's coastal Carnatic region, a dependency of Hyderabad State.
• Three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1744 and 1763.

First Carnatic War (1746-1748)

• The First Carnatic War was a conflict between the British and the French, both of whom were trying to expand their influence in India.
• The war was largely influenced by the ongoing struggle between Britain and France in Europe, known as the War of the Austrian Succession.
• Major events included sieges and naval battles in the Carnatic region.
• While the British gained some advantages, the war ended without a clear victor.

Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)

• The Second Carnatic War was marked by local power struggles and the involvement of various Indian rulers.
• Key figures included the British-backed Muhammad Ali and the French-supported Chanda Sahib.
• The conflict saw significant battles and shifting alliances.
• The war concluded with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754, which established British dominance in the region.

Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)

• The Third Carnatic War was part of the larger global conflict known as the Seven Years' War.
• The British and French fought for control over India and its trade routes.
• Key battles included the Battle of Wandiwash, where the British achieved a decisive victory.
• The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, solidifying British supremacy in the Carnatic and India as a whole.

Situation at the eve of British-French struggle

Since the 15th century, when Europeans first arrived in India, the struggle for dominance among rival factions became a significant part of Indian history. However, the Anglo-French conflicts deserve special attention due to their crucial role in shaping modern India, surpassing the impact of other contemporary struggles. The origins of these conflicts lay in the commercial and political rivalry between the British and French in India, as well as their political competition in Europe.

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the French presence in India was not substantial enough to warrant military action against the British. As a result, both companies declared neutrality and continued trading. However, by the early 18th century, the stakes for both countries in India had grown significantly.

• Trade Expansion: Between 1720 and 1740, the French Company's trade in India surged tenfold, reaching nearly half the value of the established British company. The British were heavily involved in trade, dealing in indigo, saltpetre, cotton, silk, spices, expanding trade with China. This trade accounted for over ten percent of Britain's public revenue at the time.
• European Conflicts: The catalyst for intervention came with Frederick the Great of Prussia's seizure of Silesia in 1740, leading to the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) in which Britain and France found themselves on opposing sides. These European-origin wars marked a pivotal moment in the history of modern India.
• Colonial Powers: In 1740, before the English and French conflict in India, these two nations were among the few European powers still holding significant influence in the East. The Portuguese, once dominant, had lost their monopoly due to internal strife and mismanagement.
• Dutch Decline: The Dutch, who succeeded the Portuguese, also declined due to their abuse of the monopoly they had taken from the Portuguese.
• British and French Rivalry: The English, at this time, controlled a significant portion of the trade between Europe and India, while the French, emerging later, posed a formidable challenge despite not matching British commercial success.
• Coexistence: Until this point, the English and French had coexisted in India for over seventy years without serious conflict, despite England and France being at war during much of this period. The settlers from both nations had followed independent policies towards the local rulers and inhabitants, leading to distinct differences in the nature of English and French power and policy in India.
• Impact on Future Conflicts: The divergence in policies and approaches between the English and French laid the groundwork for the subsequent struggle between the two powers in India.

Political Situation of India

The Mahrattas and the Mughal Empire:

• The Mahrattas, starting from humble beginnings, had grown powerful and were feared more than any other force in India on the eve of the French and English struggle.
• They had previously dictated terms to the Mughal Emperor of Delhi and significantly contributed to the disintegration of the once-mighty Mughal Empire.
• External attacks, like Nadir Shah's Persian invasion in 1739, weakened the central Mughal power and reduced its control over subordinate regions.
• The vast Mughal Empire was divided into principal subdivisions called "subahs", each ruled by a "subahdar."  These subahs operated almost independently under the Mughal Emperor.
• As the subahdars and subordinate powers grew stronger, they began to reject the Emperor's authority. Similarly, nawabs and rajas would break away from their subahdars when given the chance.
• One of the most significant subordinate powers during the British-French struggle was the nawabs of the Carnatic, where much of the conflict took place. This nawab was nearly independent, with the position becoming hereditary despite being theoretically under the subahdars of the Dekhan.
• During this period in Indian history, power determined right. The various subordinate powers were divided and often opposed each other, with a shared consensus only in rebelling against the supreme authority.
• There was no common sense of nationality or religion among these powers. This fragmented state of affairs made it possible for Europeans to establish a mighty empire in India.

Nature of Early French and British Settlement in India

• Neither the French nor the English had political power during their initial settlements in India.
• Their territories were not owned by the French or English crowns but by the East India Companies of each nation.
• Land for their factories was held as tenants of native powers, paying annual rent, or owned through gifts or purchases.
• These settlements were subject to the native princes of the regions where they were located.
• The native powers tolerated the Europeans because their trade increased local wealth.
• There was a natural disfavor from the natives towards the Europeans. The Europeans could either accept this or try to improve relations by respecting native customs.
• The English generally kept their distance from native princes, while the French built friendships with local rulers, like in Pondichery.
• From the establishment of the East India Company in 1600 until the French War, the English focused on trade and maintaining a monopoly.
• They often clashed with the Portuguese and Dutch but generally followed the advice to avoid garrisons and land wars in India.
• The English aimed to trade peacefully and avoided taking sides in native conflicts, enduring much mistreatment.
• However, they showed they could defend themselves, as in 1664 when they helped defend against the Maratha leader Sivaji.
• In the late 1680s, the English became more aggressive towards native powers, especially in Bengal, but their expedition failed.
• The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb expelled them from India, allowing their return only after humble submissions.
• This taught the English the precariousness of their position in India and the need for a stronghold like Madras.
• The French, after establishing their East India Company in 1674, bought land for Pondichery from the Bijapur Sultan.
• Pondichery faced threats from Sivaji but was saved by Governor Francois Martin, gaining the French the respect of the Bijapur ruler.
• Eventually, Bijapur was absorbed into the Mughal Empire, its territory was governed by the nawab of the Carnatic.

The French and Nawabi Allies in India

• Sadat Alla Khan was the first Nawab of the Carnatic to assume independent power. The French initially established friendly relations with him.
• Dost Ali Khan, Sadat's nephew and successor, Chanda Saheb, Sadat's son-in-law, formed a strong alliance with the French, greatly impacting future relations.
• Chanda Saheb was a strong admirer of the French, recognizing both their positive attributes and their ambitions for power in India.
• The French adopted a non-aggressive policy of native alliances until the time of Dupleix, expanding their power through figures like Martin, Lenoir, Dumas without conflict.
• M. Benoit Dumas, as governor-general, maintained a close friendship with Dost Ali and his family, securing permission from the Emperor of Delhi to coin money at Pondichery, crucial for French commerce.
• During the 1738 struggle for Tanjore, Dumas supported Sahuji with money and arms, but Sahuji did not fulfill his promise to the French.
• Chanda Saheb, then raja of Trichinopoly, helped the French secure Karikal from Sahuji in 1739 without conflict, showcasing French diplomatic success.
• After Sahuji's ousting, his brother Pratab Sing also sought French favor by expanding their territory and advising fortification of new towns.
• The French governors of this period pursued a diplomatic strategy, avoiding conflict and patiently waiting for opportunities.
• The French, like the English, faced their first attack from the Marathas, who had previously killed the nawab and his son.
• Safder Ali and Chanda Sahib, seeking refuge, turned to Pondichery, where Dumas successfully defended against the Marathas, raising French prestige.
• This defense established the French as a recognized power in India, leading to valuable presents from native powers and the Emperor of Delhi granting high honors to the Governor of Pondichery.
• Dumas resigned, leaving a legacy for his successor, Joseph François Dupleix, who was ambitious and knowledgeable about native affairs.
• Dumas favored a cautious policy, while Dupleix engaged more actively in native affairs and took an independent stance.
• Dumas laid the groundwork for French power in India, Dupleix aimed to build upon it.
• Dupleix understood the importance of gaining native sympathy and presented himself as an officer of the Great Mughal, integrating into native life and learning the weaknesses of native states.
• With the help of his wife, Dupleix gained valuable insights into native intrigues, setting the stage for a French empire in India.
• The French East India Company, founded by Colbert in 1664, differed from the English in encouraging noble participation in the East Indian trade.
• Nobles, seeking careers, joined the Company, contributing to the French early vision of political power in India.

The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: The Carnatic Wars

• In 1740, South India faced a confused political landscape.
• Nizam Asaf Jah of Hyderabad was old and preoccupied with the Marathas.
• The weakening of Hyderabad signaled the decline of Muslim power.
• This decline paved the way for English adventurers to implement their plans.
• Initially, the British and French came to India for trade.
• They soon became embroiled in local politics, aiming for political dominance.
• The rivalry between the British and French mirrored their historical conflicts.
• This rivalry started with the Austrian War of Succession and concluded with the Seven Years War.
• The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the mid-18th century.
• These wars involved various independent rulers, succession disputes, territorial struggles.
• There was a diplomatic and military contest between the French East India Company and the British East India Company.
• The conflicts were primarily fought in territories dominated by the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• The focus of the first two wars was on the Carnatic.
• The second war highlighted French expansion in the Deccan.
• The third war shifted attention to Bengal before returning to the Carnatic.
• During this period, English traders were alarmed by French ambitions.
• This led to numerous complaints to their superiors back home.
• Many fortunes were made, but neither company achieved great success during this time.
• Each company blamed its commercial failures on the inability to maintain a strict monopoly.
• Instead of reforming their trade systems, both companies sought to destroy each other's commerce.
• They offered rewards to servants of the rival company to defect.
• They also persuaded native powers to impose harsh laws or high taxes on their competitors.
• This sentiment heightened the bitterness of the impending struggle.
• However, it was not the direct cause of the war between the English and French in India.
• The immediate trigger was the outbreak of the Austrian War of Succession.
• This followed the death of Emperor Charles VI in 1740.

First Carnatic War (1746-48)

Background:

• Carnatic refers to the Coromandel coast and its surrounding area as identified by Europeans.
• The First Carnatic War (1746-1748) was part of the larger War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748).
• This war in India was an extension of the Anglo-French conflict in Europe, triggered by the Austrian War of Succession.
• The English in India welcomed the opportunity to counter what they saw as French expansion.
• The French were unprepared for a conflict with the English and their territories were poorly defended.
• Pondichery, the French main settlement, was inadequately fortified.
• Governor Dupleix had started improving defenses, but it took two years after the war began to complete them.
• The French stood to lose significantly in case of defeat, as they were building an empire through alliances with local powers.
• The war disrupted their plans of empire building.

Immediate Cause:

• Despite being weaker in India, France did not want to extend the conflict there. However, the English navy, under Barnet, provoked France by seizing French ships.
• The First Carnatic War in India started with the arrival of a British fleet on the Coromandel Coast in 1745.
• In response, France seized Madras in 1746 with the help of a fleet from Mauritius, led by Admiral La Bourdonnais.
• Governor Dupleix of France sought the support of the Nawab of Arcot, but the Nawab chose to remain neutral.

Battle of Madras and Fall of Madras

• The British initially captured some French ships, prompting the French to request reinforcements from Mauritius.
• In 1746, a French squadron, led by Bourdonnais, arrived to support the French efforts in India.
• The British and French East India Companies were in a fierce competition for control over their trading posts in Madras, Pondicherry, Cuddalore. Naval forces from both countries also clashed off the coast.
• The British fleet's absence from the Coromandel Coast allowed the French, now with their own fleet, to launch an attack on Madras.
• Madras was poorly fortified, Fort St. George, meant to protect the town, was not strong enough.
• In September 1746, the French captured Madras with little resistance, many British, including Robert Clive, were taken prisoner.
• The French attempted to attack Fort St. David but were unsuccessful.
• Quarrel between Dupleix and Bourdonnais: After the capture of Madras, a dispute arose between Dupleix and Bourdonnais. Bourdonnais wanted to allow the British to ransom Madras, having accepted a bribe from the British East India Company, while Dupleix strongly opposed this idea.
• This disagreement created tension between the two ambitious French leaders, ultimately leading to Bourdonnais's departure from India.
• The Battle of St. Thome (4 Nov. 1746): When conflict erupted between the British and French, the Nawab of the Carnatic, Anwar-ud-din, declared neutrality, prohibiting attacks on each other's territories.
• The French, under Admiral La Bourdonnais, broke this truce by besieging and capturing Madras.
• Dupleix promised to hand over Madras to Anwar-ud-din after its capture, honoring previous alliances with the Carnatic nawabs.
• After Bourdonnais's departure, Anwar-ud-din demanded the handover of Madras as agreed.
• Dupleix intended to fulfill this promise but needed to dismantle the fortifications first.
• To avoid giving over a fortified city, Dupleix decided to confront Anwar-ud-din's anger, leading to the French victory at St. Thome, on the banks of the Adyar River.
• A small French army defeated the larger force of the Nawab of the Carnatic. The French force, comprising 250 Europeans and 700 Sepoys under Swiss officer Paradis, was outnumbered ten-to-one.

Importance of the Battle of St. Thome:

• In the short term, Dupleix declared Madras French by right of conquest and appointed Paradis as its commander.
• Madras remained French until the war's end when it was returned to the British.
• It marked the first direct confrontation between a native and a European force.
• Long-term, it showed British and French generals they could defeat large Indian armies, shifting the power balance in India.

Later Conflict and Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

• Dupleix attacked Fort St. David.
• After being defeated at Adyar, Anwaruddin sent his son Muhammed Ali to help the British defend Cuddalore, successfully repelling a French attack in December 1746.
• Eventually, Anwaruddin and Dupleix made peace.
• A British fleet from Bengal arrived, forcing the French to retreat to Pondicherry.
• With reinforcements from Europe, the British besieged Pondicherry in late 1748.
• The siege was lifted in October 1748 due to the monsoon, the First Carnatic War ended with the news of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in December 1748, which concluded the Austrian War of Succession.
• The treaty aimed to restore English and French settlers to their pre-war positions in India.
• As per the treaty, Madras was returned to the English, while the French received their territories in North America.

Consequences:

• The First Carnatic War is notable for the Battle of St. Thome in Madras, where French forces defeated the Nawab of Carnatic's army, highlighting the effectiveness of a small disciplined army over a larger Indian force.
• This victory allowed Joseph Dupleix to expand French influence in South India.
• During the Second Carnatic War(1748-1754), Dupleix exploited succession struggles to strengthen French influence in South India.
• In contrast, the British East India Company struggled to expand its influence.
• Recognizing the threat, Robert Clive took decisive military actions to secure British control over Madras by the end of the conflict.
• The war also underscored the importance of naval power in the Anglo-French competition in the Deccan.
• Native powers learned the superiority of European military strength and discipline, leading them to seek alliances with European communities.
• They offered incentives like money and territory to attract European settlers to their side.

Why did the British and French fight later despite promising peaceful trade after the First Carnatic War?

The reasons for the eventual conflict between the British and French in India, despite their initial agreement for peaceful commerce after the First Carnatic War, can be summarized as follows:

• Involvement in Native Disputes: Once the British and French became involved in the disputes of various native princes, a clash between them became inevitable. Their involvement in these local conflicts set the stage for indirect confrontations.
• Excess Troops: The number of troops gathered in India during the previous struggle was far greater than necessary for safety. This surplus not only increased military strength but also became a significant financial burden.
• Troop Accession and Prestige: The large number of troops provided the power to intervene in local disputes, while the prestige gained from their previous involvement influenced native rulers' willingness to accept their assistance. This combination of power and reputation drew the British and French deeper into the complex politics of Indian states.
• Resulting in Further Wars: The interplay of these factors ultimately led to further conflicts between the British and French as they sought to expand their influence and control in India.