Religion: Tamil devotional cult, Growth of Bhakti - 2 | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Various trends in the historiography of Bhakti Movement

R.G. Bhandarkar and R.C. Zaehner's Contributions to Bhakti Movement Historiography

• Bhandarkar viewed the Bhakti movement as indigenous in character, supporting his argument with literary and epigraphic evidence, such as the antiquities of Krishna Worship.
• Zaehner, on the other hand, believed the movement was inspired by Islam. He justified this by highlighting the egalitarian message of Bhakti, which he equated with the monotheism of Islam.
• Tarachand compared the equity and universal brotherhood taught by Bhakti saints to Sufi thought.
• Yusuf Hussain believed that the Bhakti movement, until the 13th century, was characterized by individual sentiment. However, post-13th century, it was influenced by Islam, transforming into a doctrine and cult. He viewed this movement as a reformation of Hinduism, emphasizing simplicity of faith.
• Historians often see the movement as a form of dissent, protest, and reform, addressing the social order that discriminated against lower castes.
• J.R. Kamble argued that the main aim of the movement was to establish an egalitarian society, primarily in the religious sphere, although the message of equality did not extend to secular aspects of life.
• Ishwaran viewed Lingayatism, based on universal principles of freedom,equality, and rationality, as evidence of the Bhakti movement's contribution to modernization.
• Irfan Habib noted that the Turks in medieval India established an economic organization that fostered urbanization,commerce, and craft production. This led to the rise of an artisan class and the adoption of new professions by the indigenous population, primarily from the lower classes, which enhanced their dignity in the caste hierarchy. This environment facilitated the emergence of anti-caste religious movements like those of Bhakti saints such as Kabir and Nanak.
• Some groups, like the Khatris in Punjab, who benefited from urban growth and craft production, were drawn into the Bhakti movement due to their dissatisfaction with their low social status in Brahmanical society. In Punjab, the movement spread beyond urban areas and gained support among Jat peasants, with the Jats' support for Guru Nanak's movement contributing to the development of Sikhism.
• Critics of the movement argue that it was status quoist, suggesting it did not achieve much beyond expressing dissatisfaction.
• Max Weber contended that lower caste Hindus adhered to their caste duties with greater intensity, hoping for a better position in the afterlife. He argued that the Bhakti movement strengthened the position of Brahmanas and claimed that Bhakti was a foreign idea introduced to India through Christianity, a view he considered incorrect.
• David Kinsley observed that while Bhakti opened doors for women challenging patriarchy, male bhaktas often excluded women despite their calls for change and protests against societal injustices.
• Scholars like Barth and Senart believe that Bhakti, as understood in India and its traditional context, belongs to Indian thought. However, it also absorbed external influences, particularly after the arrival of Islam in India.
• One modern perspective links the rise of the medieval Bhakti movement to the alleged persecution of Hindus under Muslim rule. This view suggests that the movement aimed to protect Hinduism by removing the caste system and idolatry while preserving core Hindu tenets.

Main popular movements and their characteristic

Monotheistic Movements in North India

Kabir (1440-1518)

• He was a powerful figure in the monotheistic movements of the 15th century.
• Kabir was strictly monotheistic and advocated for the abolition of Varnaashrama.
• He doubted the authority of the Vedas and other sacred texts.
• Kabir is also mentioned in Sufi literature.
• The Mirat ul asar, a 17th-century account, referred to him as a Firdausiya sufi.
• The Dabistan-i Mazahib, a Persian work from the mid-17th century, placed Kabir among the Vaishnavite vairagis.
• Kabir was called a muwahhid(monotheist) by Abul Fazl.
• The Bijak is the best-known compilation of Kabir's compositions and became the holy scripture for the Kabirpanthi sect.
• Kabir believed that salvation is possible through devotion (Bhakti), not by knowledge or action.
• He neither favored Hindus nor Muslims but admired the good in both.
• Other notable saints from this period include Raidas,Dhanna,Sen, and Pipa.

Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

• Though his teachings were similar to those of Kabir and others, Guru Nanak's ideas eventually contributed to the emergence of Sikhism.
• He emphasized three basic elements in his philosophy:a charismatic leader (Guru), ideology (Shabad), and community (Sangat).
• Guru Nanak critiqued prevailing religious beliefs and aimed to establish a true religion that could lead to salvation.
• He rejected idol worship,pilgrimages,ritualistic formalism, and the caste system.
• Guru Nanak believed in the unity of God and stressed the importance of having a true Guru for revelation.
• He advocated for principles such as truth (sach),lawful earning (halal),wishing well of others (Khair),right intention (niyat), and service of the lord.
• He promoted the equality of all people and condemned practices like sati.
• Guru Nanak did not advocate for celibacy or vegetarianism but emphasized justice,righteousness, and liberty.
• His verses focused on sach (truth) and Nam (Name), with concepts like Sabad (the word),Guru (the divine precept), and Hukam (the divine order).
• He introduced practices like kirtan and satsang and initiated community lunches (langar).
• Guru Nanak's thought was influenced by Sufism, particularly the devotion seen in the verses of Baba Farid.
• He sought to unify Hindus and Muslims, integrating essential concepts from both religions into his teachings.
• His hymns were included in the Adi Granth by Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru.
• After Guru Gobind Singh, the divine spirit was believed to reside in the Guru Granth Sahib and the community of followers.
• The Sikh Gurus were mostly from the Khatri caste, while their followers were primarily rural Jats.
• Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa(brotherhood) among Sikhs, with Khatris, Aroras, Jats, and Ramgarhia Sikhs as important groups within the Sikh community.
• Caste consciousness existed but was not very prominent within the Sikh panth.

Common Characteristics of Monotheistic Movements

• Most monotheists belonged to "low" castes and recognized a unity of ideas among themselves.
• They mentioned each other and their predecessors in a way that suggested a harmonious ideological affinity.
• The monotheistic movement represents a synthesis of elements from the Vaishnava concept of bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement, and Sufism.
• They believed in only one God and adopted the notion of bhakti from the Vaishnava bhakti tradition, giving it a nirguna orientation.
• They emphasized the importance of repetition of the divine name, spiritual guru, community singing of devotional songs (kirtan), and companionship of saints (satsang).
• The monotheists followed a path independent of the dominant religions of the time, denying allegiance to either Hinduism or Islam.
• They criticized superstitions and orthodox elements in both religions and rejected the authority of Brahmans and their religious scriptures.
• Monotheistic saints were not ascetics; they were married, lived among the people, and had disdain for professional ascetics.
• They traveled widely and were popular among the "lower" classes.
• Each major figure in the monotheistic movement had followers who organized themselves into exclusive sectarian orders called panths, such as the Kabir panth, Raidasi panth, and Nanak panth, which later became Sikhism.

Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in North India

Nimbarka (younger contemporary of Ramanuja): a Telugu Brahman,

• Nimbaraka, a contemporary of Ramanuja from the south established his ashram near Mathura and spent most of his time in Vrindavan near Mathura in North India.
• He preached to the common people about the dedication to God, personified by Krishna and Radha and believed in total devotion to Krishna and Radha.
• He is known for having founded the Kumara Sampradaya and propounded the Dvaitadvaita school of thought.
• His most famous work is the Vedanta-parijata-saurabha, commentary on the Brahma-sutras.

Ramananda (late 14th and early 15th century) and Vallabha (late 15th and early 16th century): lived mostly in North India during the Sultanate period.

Ramananda (late 14th and early 15th century):

• He was a Vaishnava devotional poet saint, in the Ganges river region of northern India.
• He was a disciple of Ramanuja.
• He was the most prominent. He lived in South India in the early part of his life but later settled in Banaras.
• So he was a link between the south Indian bhakti tradition and North Indian vaishnhva bhakti.
• But he deviated from the ideology and practice of the earlier South Indian acharyas in three ways:
• He looks upon Ram and not Vishnu as object of bhakti.
• So, he came to be regarded as the ‘Founder of the Ram cult in North India within the framework of vaishnava bhakti tradition.
• He was the founder of the Ramanandi Sampradaya.
• His new sect was the most important movement in the religious history of Medieval India.
• He preached in the language of the common people and not in Sanskrit.
• He made bhakti accessible to all irrespective of caste.
• He greatly relaxed the caste rules in respect of both religious and social.
• Though a Brahman, he took food with his “Low” castevaishnava followers. → It was this goodness of him for which kabir and some other monotheists are linked to him as his disciples.
• Traditional scholarship holds that his disciples included later Bhakti movement poet-sants such as Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa and others, however some scholars have questioned some of this spiritual lineage.
• By travelling all over India, he gathered ideas and made careful observations.
• He renounced the rigidity of the Hindu ritual and his disciples took the name of Advadhuta (the detached) and regarded themselves free from all sorts of religious and social customs.
• But in his Anand Bhashya he did not recognize the right of a Sudra to read the Vedas.
• Thus, social equality was not his concern. Yet, Raidas and Kabir were among his disciples.
• His teachings produced two distinct schools of thought among the Hindus:Saguna (Tulsidas) and Nirguna (Kabir).
• His verse is mentioned in the Sikh scripture Adi Granth.

Vallabhacharya (late 15th and early 16th century)

• Vallabha Acharya was a Telugu Brahman and the founder of Shuddha Advaita philosophy.
• He established the Pushtimarga(way of grace) in Vaishnavism, centered on Krishna, in the Braj region of India.
• His teachings led to the formation of the Vallabha Sect, which emphasized Krishna bhakti and gained popularity in Gujarat.

Influence on Bhakti Poetry

• Famous Krishna bhakti saint-poet Surdas(1483-1563) and seven other poets, known as ashtachhap, were believed to be disciples of Vallabha.
• During the Mughal period, the sect gained a more widespread base.
• Tulsidas(1532-1623) focused on Rama and gave literary form to religious Bhakti while preserving the authority of the Vedas.
• Surdas(1483-1563) emphasized Krishna devotion, and Mira Bai(1503-1573) became a renowned poet expressing her deep love and attachment to Lord Krishna.

Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal

The Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal was distinct from earlier North and South Indian traditions due to its unique influences.

• It was shaped by the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of the Bhagavata Purana, which celebrated Krishna Lila.
• Jayadeva, a 12th-century poet, was the first to contribute significantly to this tradition.
• His Gita Govinda, composed in Sanskrit, infused erotic mysticism into the love story of Radha and Krishna.
• Jayadeva also wrote songs in the Maithili dialect, which were later integrated into the Bengali Vaishnava Bhakti tradition.

Sahajiya Philosophy

• The Sahajiya philosophy, a non-Vaishnava cult, emphasized the sahaja or innate reality present in all objects.
• Followers believed in the internal form of objects, known as sahaja, which represents eternity.
• By perceiving the sahaja within oneself, one can connect with the internal eternity.

Influential Figures

• Notable figures in the Bengal Bhakti movement included Chandidas and Vidyapati.
• Chandidas, the first Bengali Bhakti poet, was influenced by Gita Govinda and Sahajiya doctrines.
• Vidyapati, writing in Maithili, also drew from these non-Vaishnava cults, although the Bhagavata tradition remained the primary influence.

Chaitanya Movement

• The Chaitanya movement, led by Chaitanya(1486-1533), emerged in a social context marked by Varnashrama system and oppression of Sudras and lower castes.
• The predominance of the Sakta-tantric creed and the decline of Buddhism also influenced the religious landscape.
• Chaitanya, a prominent saint of the Eastern Indian Bhakti movement, founded the Gaudia Vaishnav(or Neo-Vaishnavite) movement.
• He adopted the Krishna cult and was instrumental in popularizing Vaishnavism in Bengal, emphasizing Krishna-bhakti across all castes and communities.

Chaitanya's Teachings

• Chaitanya's teachings, rooted in Achintya-Bheda-Abheda philosophy, emphasized the inconceivable oneness and difference between God and His energy.
• He identified God with Krishna and promoted loving devotion (bhakti) as the means to experience this relationship.
• His approach integrated elements of dualism and qualified monism while rejecting absolute monism.
• Chaitanya's popularization of sankirtana or group devotional singing and dancing marked a significant aspect of the Gaudia Vaishnav movement.
• Despite being a Brahmin, Chaitanya disregarded caste distinctions, promoting a sense of equality in devotional practices.

Impact of Chaitanya Movement

• The Neo-Vaishnavite movement, inspired by Chaitanya, had a profound impact on the social, religious, and cultural life of Assam,Bengal, and Orissa.
• Chaitanya's legacy persisted in Bengal and Orissa, where his followers, often from non-Brahmin backgrounds, propagated his teachings in Bengali and regarded him as a divine figure.
• The movement contributed to a sense of equality and communal harmony, transcending traditional caste barriers.

Conclusion

• In conclusion, the Bhakti Movement in Bengal, particularly through figures like Chaitanya, played a crucial role in shaping religious practices, promoting equality, and fostering a sense of communal identity.
• The movement's emphasis on devotion,music, and dance not only enriched spiritual life but also contributed to the broader cultural fabric of the region.

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra (Maratha Vaishnavism or Bhagavata Dharma) 

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra, which emerged around the late 13th century, was significantly energized by various poet-saints who aimed to make religion accessible to the lower strata of society. This movement shared similarities with the Vaishnava Bhakti movement, drawing inspiration from the Bhagavata Purana, but it was also influenced by the Saiva Nathpanthi tradition, popular among the lower classes in Maharashtra during the 11th and 12th centuries.

Key Characteristics

• Center of Activity: Pandharpur, renowned for the temple of Vithoba, was the epicenter of the Maharashtra Bhakti movement.
• Leaders: The movement was led by prominent figures such as Jnaneshvar, Namadeva, Ekanath, and Tukaram, who were part of the Varkari group. Sant Ramdas was another significant bhakti saint of the region.

Important Figures

• Jnaneshwar (1275-1296): As a Brahmin and the pioneering bhakti saint of Maharashtra, Jnaneshwar wrote the Jnanesvari, a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, which laid the foundation for bhakti ideology in the region. His teachings emphasized that bhakti transcends caste distinctions, and he composed hymns known as Abhangs. He played a crucial role in popularizing the Varkari sect and the pilgrimage to the Vithoba shrine in Pandharpur.
• Namdev (1270-1350): Belonging to the tailor caste, Namdev is seen as a link between the Maharashtrian bhakti movement and the North Indian monotheistic tradition. His songs, which were included in the Adi Granth, reflect his contributions to both the Varkari tradition in Maharashtra and the nirguna saint tradition in North India.
• Eknath: A Brahmin who continued the legacy of Jnaneshwar, Eknath shifted the focus of Marathi literature from spiritual texts to narrative compositions and made significant contributions to the bhakti movement.
• Tukaram: Known for his Avangas or verses, Tukaram’s teachings are an essential source for studying Maratha Vaishnavism. His works and those of Ramdas promoted anti-caste and anti-ritual sentiments.
• Sant Ramdas: Another influential bhakti saint, known for his teachings and contributions to the movement.

Literary and Cultural Impact

• The Varkari Maratha saints introduced new methods of religious instruction, such as Kirtan and Nirupana, and played a crucial role in the development of Marathi literature. Their use of popular dialects helped transform Marathi into a literary language.
• The literature of the Varkari school addressed the issues faced by common people, including farmers, traders, and artisans, reflecting the plebeian character of the movement. G. Ranade noted that this movement contributed to the upliftment of lower castes and the development of vernacular literature.

Mass Participation

• The movement in Maharashtra saw active participation from various social groups, including sudras, Atisudras, Kumbhera (potters), mali (gardeners), mahar (outcastes), and Alute balutedars.
• Saints from lower strata of society, such as Harijan Saint Choka, Gora Kumbhar, Narahari Sonara, Banka Mahara, and others, also played a significant role in the movement.

Bhakti Movement in other part of Western India 

Narsinh Mehta:

• He was a 15th-century poet-saint from Gujarat and a prominent figure in Vaishnavism.
• In Gujarati literature, he is honored as the Adi Kavi.
• His bhajan Vaishnav Jan To was favored by Mahatma Gandhi and has become closely associated with him.

Dadu Dayal (c. 1544-1603):

• Inspired by Kabir's teachings.
• A significant figure in the Nirguna School, Dadu was from Gujarat, with unclear background and social status.
• He challenged caste and creed distinctions, advocating for a universal religion centered on love and devotion to God.
• Dadu emphasized that devotion should rise above religious or sectarian boundaries, promoting a non-sectarian approach.
• In his collection of hymns and poems called Bani, he considers Allah, Ram, and Govind as his spiritual guides.
• Dadu’s teachings show sufi influence.
• By the 18th century, the Dadu Panth evolved into the Nagas, who were professional fighters.

Bhakti Movements in other regions 

Kashmir:

• Saiva bhakti flourished in the 14th century.
• Lal Ded (a woman) was the most prominent figure.

Gujarat:

• Vallabha sect of Vallabhacharya (a major figure) and Narsimha Mehta (1414-1481, or 1500-1580).
• The Vallabha sect became popular among merchants and landowners.

Karnataka:

• Virasaivas (in the 12th and 13th centuries) were a Saiva bhakti cult.
• They preached a strongly radical and heterodox concept of bhakti by incorporating social criticism into their religious outlook.

Assam:

• Sankaradeva (1449-1568) preached absolute devotion to Vishnu or his incarnation, Krishna.
• He faced persecution from orthodox Brahman priests.
• His concept of bhakti, known as eka-sarana-dharma ("religion of seeking refuge in one"), was influenced by monotheistic ideas.
• Sankaradeva denounced the caste system and used common language in his teachings.
• He introduced significant innovations in devotional practice, including the inclusion of dance-drama-music forms in preaching and the founding of the institution of satra, which later evolved into monasteries.
• His sect is called Mahapurashiya dharma.

Influence of Other Traditions on Bhakti Movements during the Sultanate Period:

• The movements of the Sultanate period were not linked to the older South Indian bhakti tradition but were influenced by traditions and movements of the pre-Sultanate period.
• Examples of these influences include the bhakti tradition of the Bhagavat Purana and religious ideas from heterodox movements like the nathpanthis.

Monotheistic Saints and Ramananda:

• Ramananda is considered a source of the monotheists because he opposed caste restrictions and preached bhakti to all.
• He preached in popular dialects.
• However, Ramananda's ideas were essentially a part of Vaishnava bhakti.
• Kabir and other monotheists went further than Ramananda by denouncing Brahmanical religion entirely.
• None of the monotheists claimed to be disciples of Ramananda or any other human guru.

Influence of Nathpanthi Movement on Monotheistic Saints:

• The Nathpanthi movement influenced monotheists because many Nathpanthi preachers, called siddhas, belonged to lower castes.
• Anyone could be initiated into the Nathpanthi sect regardless of caste.
• Both groups shared non-conformist attitudes.
• However, Kabir rejected Nathpanthi asceticism, esoteric practices, and physical methods like breath control.
• Monotheists adopted Nathpanthi ideas selectively, avoiding harsh styles like Kabir's.

Influence of Islamic Ideas and the Role of Sufism:

• Some scholars argue that all variants of the bhakti movement and the doctrine of bhakti emerged due to Islamic influence before and after the 12th century.
• This claim is based on similarities between Islam and bhakti cults.
• However, bhakti and bhakti movements had indigenous origins, developing in ancient India's religious tradition.
• Older South Indian bhakti movements predated Islam's arrival in South India.
• It is more appropriate to understand bhakti movements in their historical context rather than searching for sources of inspiration in any particular religion.
• Islam did influence bhakti cults, especially monotheistic movements.

Islamic Influence on Monotheists:

• The monotheistic bhakti movement and Islam had a relationship of mutual influence, with Sufism serving as a common ground.
• Non-conformist saints adopted many Islamic ideas, such as faith in one God, rejection of incarnation, nirguna bhakti, attack on idolatry, and rejection of the caste system.
• Sufi concepts of pir and mystic union with God aligned with non-conformist saints' ideas of guru and devotional surrender to God.
• Some non-conformist saints interacted with Sufis, like Guru Nanak's encounters with Sufis described in the janam-sakhis.
• Although Sufism and the monotheistic movement were historically independent, their similar ideas and rejection of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies provided mutual impetus.
• However, they did not uncritically borrow from Islam and rejected many elements of orthodox Islam.

Islamic Influence on Vaishnava Bhakti Movements:

• Vaishnava bhakti movements were not influenced by Islam as they did not denounce idolatry, the caste system, or the theory of incarnation and believed in Saguna bhakti.

Theory of Islamic Challenge to Hinduism:

• This viewpoint suggests that the rise of medieval bhakti movements was a response to the alleged persecution of Hindus under "Muslim" rule and the challenge Islam posed to Hinduism through its doctrines of "Unity of God," equality, and brotherhood.
• According to this theory, bhakti movements aimed to purge Hinduism of evils like the caste system and idolatry and defend its basic tenets.
• However, this notion lacks evidence and seems to project modern communal prejudices into the past.
• By the time Islam reached India, the doctrine of "brotherhood" had lost appeal, and social, economic, and racial inequalities had emerged in Muslim society.
• The Turkish ruling class considered themselves superior, and Indian converts as low-born.
• The Hindu population continued to observe their religious practices and celebrate festivals, with the majority of Hindus living near Delhi, the Sultanate's capital.
• Monotheistic saints denounced aspects of both orthodox Brahmanism and orthodox Islam.
• To assume that all monotheistic and Vaishnava bhakti saints were reacting on behalf of Hindus to an Islamic threat is unconvincing due to the lack of unity among monotheistic and Vaishnava saints.
• Poetry and teachings of bhakti saints did not mention an Islamic threat and were indifferent to such influence. Many Hindus and Muslims were disciples of bhakti saints like Chaitanya, Kabir, Nanak, Dadu, etc.

Impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on vernacular languages: 

Bhakti and Sufi saints challenged the authority of ancient Indian scriptures and the Sanskrit language, which had become inaccessible to the general population. They preached in vernacular languages and local dialects, making their messages easily understandable. This approach significantly contributed to the development of various vernacular languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, Maithili, Marathi, Gujarati, and Rajasthani. The themes of bhakti and Sufi enriched the literature in these languages.

South India: Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada

• Tamil: The bhakti movement began in South India.
• Alvar and Nayanar saints composed Tamil texts to spread their ideas. The songs of love and devotion by Alvar saints are compiled as Divya Prabandham, and Nayanar’s works are known as Devaram.
• Telugu: Tamil bhakti had a profound impact on the development of Telugu literature.
• The earliest major work in Telugu is the Telugu Mahabharata, produced by poets Nannaya, Tikkana, and Erra Pragada.
• Vaishnavism influenced Telugu literature during the reign of Vijayanagara king Krishna Deva Raya.
• Kannada: Kannada was influenced by the bhakti movement in Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
• Basava, a 12th-century poet in the Shaivite bhakti movement, and the Vaishnava Bhakti movement involving haridasas (devotee saints) greatly impacted Kannada literature.
• Haridasa Sahitya, a body of literature developed during this period.
• Purandara Dasa, a wandering Vaishnava bard, composed songs in Kannada and Sanskrit during the reign of king Achyuta Raya.

Eastern India: Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, and Maithili

• Bengali: Chaitanya and poet Chandidasa used Bengali to spread their ideas of Vaishnavism.
• A new genre of Vaishnav biographies in Bengali emerged, with works like Brindabandas’s Chaitanya Bhagvata and Krishnadas Kaviraj’s Chaitanya-Charitamitra.
• Later,Mirza Hussein Ali composed songs in Bengali in honor of Goddess Kali.
• Oriya: The bhakti movement of Chaitanya and Vaishnava poets significantly influenced Oriya literature.
• Sarladeva, an Oriya writer, wrote the Mahabharata in the 14th century.
• Assamese: In the 15th century, Vaishnava bhakti leader Shankaradev popularized the use of Assamese in the Brahmaputra valley.
• He wrote plays and poetry in Assamese to spread his ideas, followed by Madhavadas, who wrote the famous work Bhakti-Ratnavali in Assamese.
• Maithili: The development of the Maithili language in modern Bihar was linked to Vaishnava bhakti culture.
• Vidyapati is a prominent poet and writer in Maithili, known for stories and poetry devoted to Radha Krishna and Shiva.

Western India: Rajasthani, Gujarati

• Rajasthani: Bhakti saint Mirabai composed songs in Rajasthani, influenced by Hindi bhakti poems.
• Gujarati:Narasimha Mehta, a 15th-century bhakti saint from Gujarat, composed devotional lyrics in Gujarati.
• His bhajan ‘Vaishnav Jan To’ became a favorite of Mahatma Gandhi.
• The era of these bhakti poets is considered the golden age of Gujarati literature.

Punjabi

• Baba Farid, a mystic Sufi poet, pioneered a new school of poetry in Punjabi.
• Guru Nanak contributed to the development of Punjabi through his poetry in the 15th century.
• Later Sikh Gurus also enriched the Punjabi language.
• Guru Arjun Dev compiled the Adi Granth in 1604, which contains works of great medieval saints like Kabir,Farid,Namdev,Surdas,Mirabai, and Ravidas.
• It also includes poems depicting the struggles between the Sikhs and the Mughals, known as varsin Punjabi.
• Arjun Dev also wrote Sukhmani Sahib, one of the longest and greatest medieval mystic poems.
• Guru Gobind Singh’s writings are included in the Dasam Granth.

Marathi

• Marathi literature, which emerged in the 13th century, saw major contributions from saint poets of the Natha cult founded by Gorakhanatha.
• Important contributors include Janadeva(who wrote Jnanesvari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Sanskrit, and Amritanubhava),Eknatha,Tukaram(who wrote Abhangas), and Ramdas.
• Marathi literature reached a high level due to the writings of Ekanth and Tukaram.
• Eknath compiled his great commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in 1563 and wrote Bhavartha Ramayana.
• Mukteshwar completed the translation of the Mahabharata.
• Tukaram’s devotional lyrics became popular among the masses.

Hindi

• Amir Khusro, a 13th-century Sufi poet, wrote poetry in Hindavi,Punjabi, and Persian.
• Hindavi was an earlier form of Hindi.
• Adi Kala, the first stage of Hindi literature, was the richest period, with major contributions from bhakti and sufi poets.
• Bhakti poets included Kabir,Guru Nanak,Dadu,Sundaradasa,Tulsidasa(who wrote Ramcharitamanas),Surdas(who wrote Sur-Sagar), and Mirabai.
• The mystic poet Dadu Dayal(16th century) composed devotional songs in brajbhasha.
• Contributors like Malik Muhammad Jaisi(who wrote Padmavati),Nur Muhammad(who wrote Indravati), and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan(who wrote dohas like Rahim Dohavali) greatly contributed to Hindi literature.
• Ras Khan wrote a beautiful poem Prem Batika on Lord Krishna and his life in Vrindavan.

Urdu

• Sufi saints wrote poetry in Urdu, significantly contributing to the development of Urdu literature.
• Sufi elements are strong in Urdu, with the ghazal form merging mystical and erotic themes, similar to the songs or padas in the Krishna cult.
• Amir Khusro composed many Urdu verses, and Miranji Sham al-Ushshaq established Urdu as a recognized medium of Sufi narrative verse.
• Sufi saints integrated Persian and Arabic religious vocabulary and forms of thought and experience into Urdu.

Impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on life and thought of the common people: 

• The bhakti movement, which began in the south of India, eventually spread throughout the entire country, becoming a widespread mass movement.
• After the decline of Buddhism, the bhakti movement was one of the most popular and far-reaching movements in India.
• The movement achieved a significant part of its goals. According to Prof. A.L. Srivastava, the bhakti movement aimed to reform Hinduism to withstand Islamic influence and to promote harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
• The movement succeeded in simplifying worship and liberalizing caste rules, promoting the idea that all people are equal in the eyes of God and that anyone can achieve religious salvation, regardless of birth.
• However, it did not succeed in fostering Hindu-Muslim unity. The Muslim rulers and public did not accept the Hindu deities Rama, Sita, Radha, and Krishna as equals to their own figures like Rahim and Allah.
• The bhakti reformers and Sufi saints created a sense of brotherhood between Hindus and Muslims, which allowed Mughal emperors to practice religious tolerance.
• The movement set the stage for Akbar's rule, which aimed to unify the diverse religious landscape of India.
• It also inspired figures like Shivaji and contributed to the foundation of Sikhism.
• The bhakti movement had a significant impact on literature, with contributions from various regional dialects and notable progress in Tamil and Marathi literature.
• The Acharyas built the ideological foundation of the bhakti movement, harmonizing regional beliefs with Pan-Indian texts like the Upanishads. They created a sense of community continuity through commentaries and hagiographies.
• By establishing mathas and strengthening temple bases, the Acharyas consolidated community identities and encouraged pilgrimage, fostering a collective community consciousness.