Harappan Religious and Funerary Beliefs | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding Ancient Beliefs and Practices in the Indus Civilization

Archaeologists rely on material remains to piece together the past. In the Indus civilization, these remains include:

• Portable objects of various kinds, such as toys, tools, and ornaments.
• Figural representations, like small statues or figurines.
• Specific areas within settlements that appear to have been set aside for religious or sacred purposes.

One of the biggest challenges in understanding these remains is the lack of written records. Without texts to guide them, it is difficult to tell which activities were religious and which were everyday. This ambiguity leads researchers to consider that almost any find from sites like Harappa could have a sacred significance.

• Unlike the grand temples and monumental palaces found in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus sites do not have clear structures that can be identified as places of worship. There are no large temples or statues that seem to have been objects of worship. This absence raises questions about how religious practices were conducted.
• Despite their advanced engineering skills, the Indus civilization did not build monumental palaces like their contemporaries. This difference might indicate that religious ceremonies were more private, taking place within individual homes or in open spaces, rather than in large, public buildings.

In summary, the Indus civilization's lack of written records and monumental structures makes it challenging to understand their beliefs and practices. However, through careful examination of material remains, historians and archaeologists continue to explore the sacred and secular aspects of this ancient society.

Objects of Worship

Worship of Female Goddesses

• The Harappan civilization prominently featured the worship of female goddesses linked to fertility, as evidenced by seals and figurines.
• For example, a seal depicting a nude woman in a head-downward position with a plant emerging from her vagina is often interpreted as an early representation of Shakambari, the Earth Mother.
• The discovery of numerous terracotta female figurines labeled as 'Mother Goddesses' further supports this notion.
• These figurines were likely significant in the context of the Harappan agricultural society, which had a strong focus on fertility and agriculture.

Mother Goddess Terracotta Figurines

• The Harappan settlements have yielded a substantial number of terracotta figurines, with some thought to have cultic significance and others possibly serving as toys or decorative items.
• Figures often depict slim female figures with a fan-shaped headdress, short skirts, and heavy ornamentation, sometimes shown with infants or indicating pregnancy.
• These representations suggest the prevalence of fertility cults and mother goddess worship.
• Sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Banawali have large numbers of female figurines, while other sites like Kalibangan and Lothal do not.
• The broken condition of many figurines suggests they were part of a ritual cycle and may have been used for specific occasions, possibly as votive offerings.

Counter Views

• John Marshall proposed a Mother Goddess worship cult based on the discovery of female figurines, viewing it as a precursor to the Hindu sect of Shaktism.
• However, the exact role of female figurines in Indus Valley life remains uncertain.
• Some stones initially thought to be sacred phallic symbols are now believed to be tools, and certain architectural features once interpreted as religious symbols are reconsidered.
• At sites like Kalibangan and Surkotada, female figurines are almost absent.
• Even in Mohenjodaro, the relatively small number of female figures suggests that the fertility cult was not as widespread as believed.
• Some figurines were repurposed as lamps or for burning incense.

Worship of Male God

• The Harappans also worshipped a male god, often identified with the Pashupati figure on a steatite seal from Mohenjodaro.
• This figure, depicted in a yogic posture with a buffalo-horned head-dress and surrounded by animals, resembles later Hindu deities like Shiva.
• Marshall identified him as Pasupati, a precursor to Shiva, associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga worship.
• Despite this, some scholars argue against the interpretation of the figure as a yogic deity, suggesting it is merely a figure of ritual significance.

Lingas and Yonis

• The worship of male and female creative energies is evident through stone icons of lingas and yonis, reflecting fertility-related beliefs.
• Fertility is also associated with phallic stones found at various sites and a terracotta phallic emblem from Kalibangan.

Trees, Plants, and Animals

• Harappan seals, sealings, amulets, and copper tablets depict various trees, plants, and animals that may have had cultic significance.
• The Pipal tree frequently appears in seals and may have been venerated, with figures shown in front of or within the tree.
• Some animals, such as the bull, may have had cultic importance, and the depiction of composite animals and the mythical 'unicorn' could also carry religious significance.
• The reverence for bulls and cows may trace back to the Harappan civilization, as seen in seals depicting animals in processions.
• The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, a sunken rectangular basin, is believed to have been a site for ritual bathing, reflecting the importance of water in rituals.
• Structures like the Great Bath and other bathing arrangements in later historical phases indicate a continuation of ritual practices involving water.

Terracotta, Shell, Faience, and Metal Tablets

• Amulets made of terracotta, shell, faience, and metal tablets may have had protective or auspicious functions, as suggested by the presence of the svastika motif.
• Masks and puppets in the form of real and mythical animals found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa might have been linked to religious rituals.
• A triangular cake discovered at Kalibangan points to the practice of animal sacrifice.
• A cylindrical seal from Kalibangan suggests the practice of human sacrifice, depicting a woman flanked by two men wielding swords.

Fire Altars

• Fire altars found in Kalibangan, including brick-lined pits with ash and animal bones, indicate ritual activities involving animal sacrifice, ablution, and fire rituals.
• Similar altars in lower town houses and at Lothal suggest a widespread practice of fire rituals.
• These findings highlight the diversity of religious practices across different geographical areas and indicate the centrality of fire rituals in Vedic religion.
• The evidence from Kalibangan suggests that the Vedic Aryans may have adopted some Harappan religious practices upon settling in these regions.

Mythical Heroes

• Human figures with horns and tails, along with other seals resembling Mesopotamian mythology, suggest the presence of mythical heroes or deities in Harappan culture.
• For instance, a seal depicting a man wrestling with tigers recalls the Mesopotamian figure of Gilgamesh, a legendary warrior.

The Places of Worship

• Some historians believe that several large buildings in the citadel and lower town of Mohenjodaro were likely temples dedicated to gods. This idea is supported by the discovery of many large stone sculptures in these buildings.
• In the lower city of Mohenjodaro, archaeologists found a large building with a grand entrance and a double staircase leading up to a raised platform. On this platform, they discovered a stone sculpture of a seated man with his hands on his knees and a bearded face. Another stone statue was also found in the same building, leading scholars to identify it as a temple.
• Nearby the Great Bath, another large structure was found, which some historians believe might have been the residence of a high priest or a college of priests. Additionally, an oblong assembly hall was reported in the citadel area, with a complex of rooms nearby. In one of these rooms, a statue of a seated man was discovered, further suggesting the religious significance of the area.
• These ritual structures give us a glimpse into the religious practices of the people in Mohenjodaro. It is presumed that some rituals were performed in the large temple-like structures. However, no structure found at any Harappan site can be definitively identified as a temple.

Harappan Funerary Beliefs and Practices

Key Sites of Harappan Burials

• Harappa
• Kalibangan
• Rakhigarhi
• Lothal
• Rojdi
• Ropar

Burial Practices

• Burial of Adult Man at Harappa: In Harappa, the burial of an adult male involved placing the body, possibly wrapped in a shroud and adorned with a necklace, inside a wooden coffin. This coffin was then entombed in a rectangular pit, surrounded by pottery vessels containing burial offerings.
• Extended Position: The most common method of burial involved placing the deceased in an extended position, with the head oriented towards the north, either in a simple pit or a brick chamber. Typically, the bodies were laid on their backs and oriented from north to south.
• Presence of Grave Goods: Grave goods such as food, pottery, tools, and ornaments (including shell bangles, necklaces, and earrings) were included with the body. However, these items were not overly lavish. The Harappans seemed to prefer using their wealth during life rather than burying it with the dead. Common grave items included earthen pots, copper mirrors, mother-of-pearl shells, and antimony sticks.
• Coffin Burial: Although coffins were not typically used, at Harappa, archaeologists discovered a woman’s body in a wooden coffin lined with reed mats.
• Symbolic Burials: Symbolic burials with grave goods but without skeletons were found at Kalibangan. Small circular pits containing large urns accompanied by pottery were discovered, but they lacked skeletal remains.
• Fractional Burials: Fractional burials, where the body was exposed to the elements and the bones were later gathered and buried, were observed at Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• Urn Burials: Evidence of urn burials at Mohenjodaro and Harappa suggests the practice of cremation.
• Multiple Burials: Multiple burials of men and women were found at Lothal, including a unique funerary rite involving the simultaneous burial of a couple in the same grave pit. The first confirmed joint burial of a couple was discovered in Rakhigarhi, possibly indicating the practice of sati, though this is uncertain.

Burial Practices in Different Sites

• Ropar: Bodies were typically laid with the head oriented to the northwest, although in one case, the orientation was north-south. A man was found buried with a dog.
• Rojdi: Two infants were discovered buried beneath the floor of a house.
• Mohenjo-daro: Some bodies were found scattered throughout the city in disarray, with skeletons appearing to be in a state of trauma, as if buried in the midst of action with weapons in hand. These burials may indicate a loss of civic order or an invasion.

Burials at Kalibangan

• Types of Burials: Three types of burials were identified. Bodies were buried in a supine position with skeletal remains.
• Pot Burials: Pot burials are a rare type where individuals' bodies are crammed into pots and buried.
• Large Pots: Large pots were found interred in rectangular or circular pits without skeletal remains.

Social Hierarchy in Burials
Harappan burials show little evidence of social hierarchies compared to Mesopotamian or Egyptian practices. However, some degree of hierarchy was evident. For example, in Kalibangan, an older male was buried in an old brick chamber with 70 pottery vessels and expensive jewelry, indicating his high status in society.

Harappan funerary beliefs and practices were diverse and indicate a belief in life after death, as seen in the careful placement of bodies with ornaments and toiletries. This contrasts with later practices, where cremation became predominant. The evidence suggests a complex relationship with death and the afterlife, reflecting the cultural and religious beliefs of the Harappan people.

Diversity of religious practices

• A study of the various kinds of objects found in excavations shows that different regions of the Harappan civilization followed different kinds of religious practices.
• Fire worship was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal but unknown in Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
• Ritual bathing evidenced at Mohenjodaro might have been absent in Harappa.
• The burial practices show wide variation ranging from extended inhumation to double burials and pot burials.
• Finds in Kalibangan also show that different kinds of burial practices were being followed in the same settlement.
• This kind of diversity of religious beliefs and practices even in the same settlement reflects the complex nature of the urban centres.
• Unlike tribal societies where every member of the tribe follows similar kinds of religious practices, the urban centres are characterised by the presence of people following different kinds of religious practices.
• This apparently means that urban centres were formed by the political and economic integration of varied social groups.
• Also, an urban centre means the presence of traders from different regions with their own religious practices.
• These groups retained their social mores and customs but lost their political and economic independence.