Vedic Literature: Religious and Philosophic Literature | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Vedic Texts

• What is the Veda? The term "Veda" comes from the Sanskrit root "vid," which means "to know." Therefore, the Veda refers to the sacred knowledge contained in ancient texts known as the Vedic texts.
• The Vedic texts represent the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and are considered the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. These texts are also referred to as śruti(meaning "what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from other religious texts called smṛiti(meaning "what is remembered"). Hindus believe that the Vedas are apauruṣeya, meaning they are impersonal and authorless, and are considered revelations experienced by ancient sages after intense meditation.
• According to the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the creation of the Vedas is attributed to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves claim to have been skillfully composed by Rishis (sages) through inspired creativity, similar to how a carpenter builds a chariot.

The Four Vedas

• Rigveda: A collection of 1,028 hymns divided into ten mandalas. These hymns are the earliest compositions and provide insights into the life of the early Vedic people in India.
• Samaveda: A collection of verses mostly taken from the Rigveda but arranged in a poetic form to facilitate singing. This modified collection was known as the Sama Veda Samhita.
• Yajurveda: Contains hymns as well as rituals that accompany their recitation. These rituals reflect the social and political context of the time.
• Atharvaveda: A collection of magic spells and charms aimed at warding off evil spirits and diseases. Its contents provide insights into the beliefs and practices of non-Aryans.

Each Veda is further subdivided into four major text types:

• Samhitas: Collections of hymns or mantras.
• Brahmanas: These texts are filled with ritualistic formulas and explain the social and religious significance of the rituals.
• Aranyakas: Texts on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, and symbolic sacrifices.
• Upanishads: Texts that discuss meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge.

The Upanishads represent the last composed layer of Vedic texts and are often referred to as Vedanta, which can mean "the last chapters or parts of the Vedas." Central concepts in the Upanishads include Brahman(Ultimate Reality) and Atman(Soul or Self). The Upanishads form the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.

Aranyakas are sometimes categorized as karma-kanda(ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda(spirituality section).

The Philosophy of the Upanishads

The Upanishads demonstrate a strong and innovative philosophical approach. They serve as the foundation for all philosophical systems and religions in India, whether orthodox or heretical. The theological and philosophical systems of thinkers like Samkara and Ramanuja are based on the Vedanta, which is rooted in the Upanishads.
The philosophers of the Upanishads are deeply engaged in a sincere exploration of the ultimate truth behind the world of creation. They express their findings through the identification of Brahman and Atman.

• Brahman is the highest principle that manifests in the diversity of creation and absorbs all things at the time of dissolution.
• Atman refers to the individual self.

This relationship is encapsulated in the famous dictum of identity, Tat tvam asi(meaning "You are That"), where:

• Tat, meaning "that," represents Brahman and, through it, the universe.
• tvam, meaning "thou," stands for Atman or the individual self.

The concept of the world-soul, Atman, has evolved from the earlier notion of the world-man, and the personal creator, Prajapati, has transformed into the Upanishadic idea of the impersonal source of all being, Brahman. Brahman embodies the entire progression of religious and philosophical thought in India. This unity of Brahman (the cosmic principle) and Atman (the psychical principle) reflects the identity of the individual Atman with the world-Atman, as expressed in the Upanishadic dictum tat tvam asi (Thou art That).

• Brahman, the power that manifests in all existing things, creates, sustains, preserves, and ultimately absorbs all worlds back into itself, is identical with Atman. Atman is the essence of our being, stripped of all external layers, representing our individual self or soul.
• Among the new concepts introduced in the Upanishads is the doctrine of rebirth or transmigration of the soul. This idea seems to have been a part of nearly all ancient religions. The earliest form of this doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which describes the continuous passage of the soul from one body to another for eternity. According to this doctrine, even gods are subject to this cycle and are eventually replaced by other gods. Animals, insects, and even plants, according to some views, are also governed by the same law of transmigration.
• Closely related to transmigration is the doctrine of karma (action), which posits that a person's actions determine the nature of their life in the next birth. This concept quickly became fundamental to most Indian thought. While it may have justified the social inequalities of the Aryan community, it was not originally intended for that purpose. Nonetheless, it provided a satisfactory explanation for the mystery of suffering, which continues to perplex many thoughtful individuals worldwide.
• According to the doctrine of Karma, one's status is determined by their conduct or deeds. The elevation or degradation of one's status, as well as one's happiness or misery, is all dependent on one's actions. This doctrine implies that the present condition is inevitable, but only because of the karma accrued from past actions.

The Upanishads emphasize the acquisition of knowledge for salvation and reject the idea of salvation through action or faith. They assert that the realization of Brahman as the only reality, which is also the individual soul, leads to liberation. To acquire this knowledge, selfish desires must be eliminated.

Sruti Literature as a Source of History

“Sruti” literally means ‘that which has been heard’. In the Hindu tradition the Vedas have the status of sruti. Many different kinds of histories of the Indo-Aryans have been derived from the Vedas. Nationalist historians extracted historical details from the texts but tended to idealize the Vedic age. A subsequent trend was more dispassionate in approach, but concentrated on fitting data from the texts into long-term unilinear historical and anthropological models (by Marxist historians). Recent studies offer a more nuanced textual analysis.

• Extracting history from a literature as ancient, vast, and complex as the Vedas is no easy task. Unfortunately, critical editions identifying the original core of the texts are not available. A great deal depends on the interpretation of words and phrases, whose meanings may vary from one text and context to another.
• When we talk of the ‘Vedic age’ or ‘Vedic culture’, we must be conscious of the problem of dating the Rig Veda, the religious and elite nature of the texts, their specific geographical contexts, and the availability of substantial archaeological data for these and other regions.

Problem in using Vedas as a source of history:

• The Vedic corpus was not a popular literature: Therefore, does not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices.
• Vedic texts comprise a religious literature and references to possible historical events are a few.
• The Vedic literature forms an important part of the Brahmanical tradition. It reflects their religious beliefs, practices and points of view.
• The uncertainty of the period of composition of the Rig Veda is a major problem in using this text as a source of history.
• The texts were transmitted orally for many centuries and it is not certain when they were first written down.
• The earliest surviving manuscripts belong to the 11th century CE. Many historians use a rough chronology of c. 1200–1000 BCE or 1500–1000 BCE for the composition of the earliest sections of the Rig Veda.

Books 2–7, the oldest books of the Rig Veda Samhita, are also known as the family books because their composition is attributed to the families of certain seer-poets— Grit-samada, Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, and Vasishtha. Books 1, 8, 9, and 10 seem to be of a later period.

• The hymns of this Samhita are arranged in a precise pattern. The pattern of arrangement makes it possible to detect interpolations. Hymns that disrupt the pattern must have been added to the collection later.
• Vedic texts can be used as sources of history for limited geographical areas in which they were composed. There are several problems in correlating the evidence from the Vedas with archaeology.

Upto what extent can it be used as historical sources:

• The Vedic texts can be used as sources of history for the areas in which they were composed.
• For example: The family books of the Rig Veda samhita were composed in the land of sapta-sindhu or the seven rivers that is the Indus, its five tributaries, and the saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra).
• The later Vedic texts were composed in the Indo-Gangetic plain and the upper Ganga Valley.
• The ‘battle of ten kings’ may be based on an actual historical incident.
• The great battle took place on the bank of the river Parushni (Ravi).
• There are also references which show that the political alliances between the tribes were fluid and shifting.
• There are references of the assemblies like the sabha (smaller, elite gathering) and samiti (a larger assembly) presided over by the the Rajan, the chieftain.
• There are also references of cattle rearing, agricultural activity, various craft works, slavery etc which shades important light on the socio-economic life of the contemporary society.
• So, for constructing the history of the sub-continent it is important to carefully juxtapose the archaeological evidences and the text based evidences and caution should be made while using the ancient sruti literature as the source of history.

The Geography of the Vedic Texts

The Country of the Aryans

• In the early period, the Aryans referred to their settled region as Sapta Saindhavas, indicating their concept of country.
• Later on, this region was also called Aryavarta, encompassing most of northern India.

Rivers

• During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryan culture was primarily centered between the Yamuna and Sutudri(Sutlej) rivers, as well as along the upper course of the Saraswati river.
• Out of the thirty-one rivers mentioned in the Vedic texts, about twenty-five are found in the hymns of the Rig Veda alone.
• The Sindhu(Indus) is the most significant river for the Aryans and is mentioned frequently.
• Other important rivers include:
  • Sindhu(Indus)
  • Saraswati(identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra channel in Haryana and Rajasthan)
  • Drishadvati(Ghaggar)
  • The five rivers of Punjab: Shutudri(Satlej), Vipas(Beas), Parushni(Ravi), Asikni(Chenab), and Vitasta(Jhelum)
• The Rigveda also mentions rivers like Gomati(modern Gomal),Krumu(modern Kurram), and Kubha(modern Kabul).
• The Suvasthu(Swat) is another notable river mentioned to the north of Kabul.
• Other rivers mentioned include the Yamuna,Ganga, and Sarayu.
• In the Nadistuti, the Rig Veda lists several streams, mostly from the Indus system.
• Later Vedic texts also mention rivers such as the Narmada,Gandak,Chambal, and others.

The Mountains

• The Rig Vedic people were aware of the Himalayas but did not mention the land south of the Yamuna, nor did they refer to the Vindhya or Satpura mountains.
• Other hills mentioned include Arjika,Mujavant, and Silament(Suleman range), all of which are ridges of the Himalayas.

The Seas

• The early Rig Vedic texts have uncertain references to seas. The term samudra mainly referred to a collection of water rather than the sea during this period.
• However, in later Vedic literature,samudra came to mean the sea. References to eastern and western oceans in the Satapatha Brahmana suggest knowledge of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in the later Vedic era.
• Later Vedic texts also mention seas and sea voyages, indicating some form of commerce possibly spurred by new arts and crafts.

The Deserts

• The Rig Vedic Aryans were unfamiliar with deserts.
• However, an implied reference to Maru as a desert region near Kurukshetra is found in the Taittiriya Aranyaka.

Later Vedic Texts

• The later Vedic texts describe three broad divisions of India:
• Aryavarta(Northern India)
• Madhyadesa(Central India)
• Dakshinapatha(Southern India)

Puranas as a Source of History

Purana means ‘old’. According to tradition, the composition of Puranas began with Sage Veda-Vyasa. There are 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas) and many more Upapuranas (secondary Puranas). The origins of the Puranas may overlap with the Vedas, but their composition extended into the 4th-5th centuries CE and, in some cases, even later. Most of the Puranas were written during the Gupta period, although some belong to the early medieval period as well. For instance, the Bhagavata Purana dates to the 10th century, while the Skanda Purana is from the 14th century.

Five Characteristics (Panch-lakshanas) of Puranas

• The Puranas are characterized by five topics:
  Sarga: Original creation of the world;
  Pratisarga: Dissolution and recreation;
  Manvantaras: Periods of various Manus;
  Vamsha: Genealogies of gods and rishis;
  Vamsanucharita: Accounts of royal dynasties, including the suryavamshi and chandravamshi kings.

Secular Knowledge Contained in the Puranas

• The Conception of Time: The Puranic conception of time is elaborate, dividing time into four ages or yugas: Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Each yuga is followed by the periodic destruction of the world and its subsequent re-creation.
• Political History: Six main Puranas—Vayu, Brahmanda, Bhagavata, Bhavisya, Matsya, and Vishnu—provide valuable insights into ancient political history. They reference historical dynasties such as the Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas, and Andhras (Satavahanas). For example, the Vishnu Purana, Matsya Purana, and Vayu Purana discuss the Mauryan age, Satavahana period, and Gupta age, respectively. The Puranas also illuminate the evolution of kingship, the emergence of the state, interstate relations, and administrative organization (local, judicial, civil, military, revenue).
• Historical Geography: Puranic accounts of mountains, rivers, and places are valuable for studying historical geography. For instance, the Markandeya Purana discusses the Vindhyan Ranges and Narmada valley region.
• Intermingling of Culture: The Puranas reflect the interactions between different cultural traditions, such as Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical cultures.

Other Secular Information:

• System of Land Grant: Verses praising land gifts in the Padma, Bhavisya, and Brahma Puranas shed light on the system of land grants.
• Urbanization: The Puranas offer information about the foundations, planning, naming, antiquity, growth, and decay of towns and cities, crucial for understanding the history of urbanization in ancient India. They illustrate the nature of urban settlements, showing the growth of towns for political, administrative, commercial, religious, or educational purposes, such as Kaushambi and Rajagriha as capital cities.
• Origin of Aryans: Some Puranas suggest that the original homeland of the Aryans was Pratisthana, from where they expanded throughout the Gangetic Doab. This indicates the indigenous origin of the Aryans, contrasting with foreign origin theories.
• Brahmanical Social Values: Puranic descriptions of Brahmanical social values, such as Varnashrama dharma (the four stages of life) and the caste system, hold considerable historical significance.
• Interaction of Different Cultures: Puranic myths, including stories of encounters and interactions between demons, gods, and sages, are interpreted by historians as allegorical representations of interactions among people from different cultures.

The Secular Knowledge in Some Specific Puranas

• Agni Purana: This Purana has an encyclopedic character, covering subjects such as astronomy, geography, grammar, law, medicine, politics, and more.
• Garuda Purana: Similar to the Agni Purana, it encompasses various topics, including cosmography, astronomy, astrology, omens, medicine, metrics, grammar, knowledge of precious stones, and politics.
• Vishnudharmottara Purana: This supplement to the Vishnu Purana is also encylopedic, discussing the art of painting and various branches, methods, and ideals of Indian painting.
• Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana: Composed in the 9th century by Jinasena and Gunabhadra, it addresses topics like dream interpretation, town planning, the duties of warriors, and royal governance.

During the later Vedic period and beyond, women and Shudras lacked access to Vedic texts, but the Puranas became accessible to them, facilitating the dissemination of knowledge to the masses.
The method of disseminating secular knowledge from the Puranas to the masses primarily involved storytelling. Banabhatta, for instance, recounts hearing stories from the Vayupurana in his village during childhood, as Puranic stories were read publicly. The Arthashastra mentions officials like the pauranika,suta, and magadha, retained by kings to listen to the Puranas. Indologists like Maurice Winternitz acknowledge that pauranikas and aitihasikas were professional storytellers.

With its abundance of secular knowledge, the Puranas served as a primary source of secular information for people, especially when a significant portion of society was denied access to knowledge.