Evolution of Monarchy and Varna system | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Rise of Monarchy in Ancient India

Warfare in Vedic Literature

• Warfare is a prominent theme in both early and later Vedic literature. For instance, Book 1 of the Rig Veda Samhita mentions a battle involving 20 kings and 60,099 warriors, although these numbers may not be taken literally.

Political Landscape in 6th Century BCE North India

• By the 6th century BCE, north India had a diverse political landscape that included monarchical states (rajyas), oligarchic states (ganas or sanghas), and tribal principalities.
• This diversity had its roots in the period between 1000 and 600 BCE.
• Some communities retained their tribal characteristics, while others were transitioning towards statehood.

The Formation of Larger Political Units

• Larger political units were formed through the amalgamation of tribes.
• For example, the Purus and Bharatas united to form the powerful Kurus, while the Turvashas and Krivis joined to create the Panchalas.
• The Kurus and Panchalas likely had a close alliance or confederation.

From Tribal Polity to Territorial State

• Later Vedic texts indicate a shift from a tribal polity based on lineage to a territorial state.
• Some historians believe this transition was still ongoing during this period.
• However, since the later Vedic texts were composed in the 6th century BCE—a time when territorial states were clearly present according to other sources—it makes sense to acknowledge the emergence of states during this time.

The Kurus as the First State in India

• Scholar Witzel (1995) argues that the Kurus represent the first state in India.
• Under their king Parikshit and with the help of Brahmana priests, the Kurus are believed to have initiated the collection and codification of the Vedic texts into a canon.
• This process involved re-arranging old and new poetic and ritual materials to meet the needs of the newly developed shrauta rituals, presided over by various specialists.

Transition to State Polity

• The transition to a state polity is the result of complex political, social, and economic processes.
• The emergence of a monarchical state involved various processes of conflict, accommodation, and alliances.
• Monarchy signifies the concentration of political power in the hands of a king (rajan).
• The supremacy of the rajan was established by sidelining rival claimants, establishing coercive mechanisms, and controlling productive resources.

Role of the Rajan

• In later Vedic texts, the rajan is portrayed as a leader in battle, a protector of settlements and people (especially Brahmanas), and a custodian of social order.
• He is also a sustainer of the rashtra, a term that does not necessarily refer to a well-defined territory.
• Hereditary kingship was beginning to take shape during this period.

Concept of Dasha-Purusham Rajyam

• The Shatapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas mention the concept of a kingdom lasting for 10 generations (dasha-purusham rajyam).
• While there are references to the election of a king in texts like the Atharva Veda, these likely represented a ratification of hereditary succession.

Exceptions to Hereditary Rule

• An interesting case is found in the story of the Srinjayas, who expelled their king Dushtaritu Paumsayana despite his 10 generations of royal descent.
• This instance highlights that such expulsions were exceptions to the general rule of hereditary succession.

Rituals and the Supremacy of Kings

• Later Vedic rituals emphasized the supremacy of the king over his kinsmen and subjects.
• Terms like samrajya and samrat reflect the imperial aspirations and ambitions of certain kings during this period.

Speculations on the Origins of Monarchy

• The emergence of monarchy was accompanied by speculations about its origins and legitimizing ideologies.
• Some of these speculations connected the institution to divine origins, while others rooted it in human experiences.

Divine Justification of Kingship

• In the Aitareya Brahmana, it is stated that the gods, after being defeated by demons, realized they needed a king to lead them to victory.
• Consequently, they elected a king who would guide them against the demons.
• In another part of the text, the gods, led by Prajapati, decided to install Indra as their king because he was the most vigorous, strong, and capable among them, excelling in tasks that needed to be done.

Connection Between Kings and Gods in Later Vedic Texts

Later Vedic texts highlight the strong bond between the king and the gods. The Shatapatha Brahmana states that the king aligns himself with Prajapati(the cosmic creator) by performing specific sacrifices like the vajapeya and rajasuya. As the visible representative of Prajapati, the king, though one individual, governs over many. These assertions aim to elevate the king's status rather than suggest a theory of divine kingship or indicate that kings were worshipped as gods.

Rituals and the Rise of Political Power

• The rise of the rajan as the ultimate political authority involved separating himself from his closest relatives, especially his kinsmen.
• This separation was highlighted through ritual contests such as the chariot race in the vajapeya sacrifice and the cattle raid and game of dicing in the rajasuya sacrifice.
• While these contests may have once determined the worthy successor to the kingship, they had evolved into predetermined rituals where the rajan's victory was already known.

Control Over Resources

• Another aspect of the rajan's growing power was his increased control over productive resources.
• Bali, initially a voluntary offering likely comprising agricultural produce and cattle, became obligatory over time.
• The Shatapatha Brahmana notes that the Vaishya offers bali because he is under the control of the Kshatriya and must relinquish his stored goods when ordered.

Rajans as Resource Managers

• The term vishamatta describes the rajan as the eater of the vish(people), signifying that he relied on the produce of the people.
• While the rajan's collection of bali from the populace did not constitute a clearly defined tax system, it indicated his growing authority.

Power Dynamics: Sabha and Samiti

• References to the sabha and samiti(assemblies) persist in later Vedic texts.
• In the Shatapatha Brahmana, the king invokes the support of these assemblies, described as the daughters of Prajapati.
• However, as royal power expanded, the influence of these assemblies likely diminished.

Role of the Purohita

• Later Vedic texts depict a close relationship between the king and his purohita(Brahmana priest and advisor).
• The purohita, whose name means "one who is placed in front," is seen as subordinate to the king, similar to the relationship between earth and heaven.
• The significance of the purohita is evident in the rajasuya ceremony, where he presents the king to the people, stating,"This man is your king. Soma is the king of us Brahmanas."

Connection Between Political and Domestic Spheres

• Kumkum Roy has emphasized the link between the emergence of the monarchical system, the varna hierarchy, the organization of kinship relations, and the structure of households. 
• The grand shrauta sacrifices performed by the king legitimized his control over the productive and reproductive resources of his realm. At the same time, the domestic sacrifices carried out by the grihapati(head of the household) legitimized his control over the productive and reproductive resources of his household. 
• Brahmanical texts implicitly acknowledge the connections between the political and domestic spheres by describing the rajan as a custodian of the social order.

The Varna Hierarchy

• Although kinship ties remained significant, later Vedic texts suggest the emergence of a class structure where different social groups had varying levels of access to productive resources. Varna was both a reflection of this growing social differentiation and an ideology that justified it from the perspective of elite groups.
• By dividing society into four hereditary strata, this ideology established social boundaries, roles, status, and notions of ritual purity. Members of the four varnas were believed to possess different innate characteristics that made them naturally suited for specific occupations and social ranks. The varna hierarchy continued to be a crucial aspect of social discourse within the Brahmanical tradition for many centuries, with the duties and functions of the four varnas elaborated upon in the later Dharmashastra literature.

The Purusha-sukta

The Purusha-sukta, a hymn from the Rig Veda Samhita, describes the origin of four social groups—Brahmana, Rajanya, Vaishya, and Shudra—from the body of a primeval being, Purusha, during a cosmic sacrifice. This hymn depicts the varnas as interrelated parts of a whole, suggesting a hierarchy with Brahmana at the top and Shudra at the bottom. The varnas were seen as integral to the natural order, created alongside fundamental aspects of the universe like earth and sky.

Historical Context

• Initially, there was some uncertainty regarding the hierarchy of the varnas. In certain Brahmanical texts, the Rajanya (Kshatriya) was sometimes placed before the Brahmana. However, over time, especially from the period of the Dharmasutras, the order of the varnas became well-established.

Relationship Between Brahmana and Kshatriya

• The relationship between the Brahmana and Kshatriya varnas was intricate. Later Vedic literature highlighted the crucial role of the purohita (priest) for the king, symbolizing the close ties between these two groups. Additionally, the conflict between the deities Mitra and Varuna was interpreted as a metaphor for the tension between the principles of brahma (sacred authority) and kshatra (secular authority).

Upanishadic Philosophy

• Upanishadic thought was sometimes viewed as a response to the Kshatriya challenge against Brahmanical dominance in the realm of ultimate knowledge.

Varnas and Rituals

• The first three varnas, known as dvija or 'twice-born', were entitled to perform the upanayana ceremony, marking their second birth. They were also eligible for the agnyadheya, the initial installation of the sacred fire, which signified the beginning of ritual duties for householders. Despite their shared status, texts also highlighted distinctions among the three varnas.
• The Aitareya Brahmana described the rajasuya sacrifice as endowing each varna with unique qualities: the Brahmana with tejas (lustre), the Kshatriya with virya (valour), the Vaishya with prajati (procreative powers), and the Shudra with pratishtha (stability). Later texts like the Shrautasutras provided detailed instructions for various sacrifices, such as the soma sacrifice and agnyadheya, based on the varna of the sacrificer.

Status of Brahmanas

• Brahmanas held a prestigious position in the varna hierarchy due to their association with sacrifices and knowledge, particularly the study and teaching of the Vedas. In the Aitareya Brahmana, Varuna expressed a preference for a Brahmana over a Kshatriya when given the choice of sacrifice. 
• The Shatapatha Brahmana attributed four special traits to the Brahmana: purity of lineage, good behavior, glory, and the role of teaching or protecting people. Brahmanas were also granted four privileges by the populace: honor, gifts, freedom from harassment, and freedom from physical punishment.

Role of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas

• Kshatriyas or Rajanya were associated with strength, fame, governance, and warfare. Vaishyas were linked to material wealth, animals, food, and production-related tasks such as cattle rearing and agriculture. 
• In the soma sacrifice, prayers were made for the protection of the brahma (Brahmanas), kshatra (Kshatriyas), and vish (Vaishyas). The objectives varied according to the yajamana's varna: priestly lustre (brahma-varchas) for Brahmanas, prowess (indriya) for Kshatriyas, and animals and food (pashu and anna) for Vaishyas.

Position of the Shudra

• The Shudra was firmly positioned at the bottom of the varna hierarchy, tasked with serving the higher varnas and performing menial duties. Shudras were not permitted to conduct Vedic sacrifices, and individuals who had undergone initiation for Vedic rituals were discouraged from interacting with them.
• According to the Aitareya Brahmana, Shudras were seen as subservient, able to be summoned or punished at will. There were groups considered even lower than Shudras, such as slaves (dasas and dasis), who were mentioned as items in gift lists.
• However, in some cases, children born to slave women could attain higher status. For example, in the Rig Veda, Kakshivan, the son of the sage Dirghatamas and a slave woman, is noted. Similarly, Kavasha Ailusha, a composer of a Vedic hymn, is described as the son of a slave woman. These instances were likely exceptional.

Untouchability and Social Stratification

• While later Vedic texts do not provide clear evidence of untouchability practices, groups like the Chandalas were viewed with disdain by the elite. References in texts like the Chhandogya Upanishad and various Brahmanas associate Chandalas with symbolic human sacrifices and depict them as dedicated to the deity Vayu. The mention of Vayu has been interpreted to suggest that Chandalas lived in open spaces or near burial grounds, although this interpretation remains uncertain.
• The Chhandogya Upanishad also indicates that individuals who perform virtuous deeds in this life are reborn in favorable conditions as Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, or Vaishyas, while those who engage in base actions are reborn in lower conditions, such as as a dog, boar, or Chandala.
• The Shatapatha Brahmana narrates the tale of King Videgha Mathava, who, along with his priest Gotama Raghugana, migrated from the Sarasvati river region to the eastern lands, possibly signifying the eastward movement of Indo-Aryans and early agricultural settlement through forest clearance.
• Furthermore, the Aitareya Brahmana recounts how Vishvamitra cursed his sons to become the Andhras, Pundras, Shabaras, Pulindas, and Mutibas when they rejected Shunahashepa (Devarata) as their brother. This narrative reflects the Brahmanical tradition's attempt to acknowledge 'outsiders' to some degree. Some non-Indo-Aryan groups were integrated into the varna system, typically at lower levels, while others were merely recognized.

Conclusion

In summary, while later Vedic texts indicate increasing stratification in society, particularly in the upper Ganga valley, there remained a degree of flexibility in occupations, as evidenced in the Rig Veda where diverse occupations within a family are celebrated.