Art and Architecture: Painting | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Cultural Traditions in India, 750- 1200: Painting 

Painted Works from the Medieval Period:

• There are very few painted works, such as murals or illustrations in manuscripts, that have survived from the Medieval period.

Mural Paintings 

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Ellora Painting 

• Between the 8th and 10th centuries A.D., numerous Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples were carved out of solid rock.
• The most remarkable among these is the Kailashnath temple, which is a free-standing monolithic structure.

Ellora Monuments:

• The Ellora monuments were constructed during the rule of Hindu dynasties like the Rashtrakuta and Yadava dynasties.
• The Rashtrakuta dynasty was responsible for building some of the Hindu and Buddhist caves, while the Yadava dynasty focused on creating several Jain caves.
• Funding for these monumental constructions came from royals, traders, and the affluent individuals of the region.

Mural Paintings in Ellora:

• Mural paintings are present in five caves at Ellora, but they are best preserved in the Kailasa temple.
• Fragments of paintings can be seen on the ceilings and walls of various parts of the Kailashnath temple and some associated Jain cave temples.
• However, very few murals in the Jain temples are well preserved.

Series of Paintings:

• The paintings in Ellora were done in two series:
• First Series: This series was created during the carving of the caves.
• Vishnu and Lakshmi: The earlier paintings depict Vishnu and Lakshmi being carried through the clouds by Garuda, set against a cloudy background.
• Artistic Features: The figures have sinewy forms with sharp features and pointed noses. The protruding eyes, typical of the later Gujarati style, first appeared in Ellora.
• Second Series: This series was completed several centuries later.
• Procession of Saiva Holy Men: The main composition features a procession of Saiva holy men, with graceful flying Apsaras.

Composition and Style:

• The paintings at Ellora are organized within rectangular panels with thick borders, contrasting with the space composition seen in Ajanta.
• While Ellora painting departs from the classical norms of Ajanta, it retains elements like the modeling of mass, rounded soft outlines, and depth illusion.
• Characteristic Features: The key features of Ellora paintings include:
• Head Twist: Sharp twist of the head.
• Arm Bends: Angular bends of the arms.
• Limbs: Concave curves of the close limbs.
• Nose: Sharp projected nose.
• Eyes: Long drawn open eyes.

Flying Figures:

• The flying figures from cave temple No. XXXII at Ellora, dating back to the mid-ninth century A.D., exemplify swift movement through clouds.
• The characteristics of rounded plasticity from Ajanta and angular arm bends from medieval tendencies are both prominent in these figures, indicating a transitional period in Indian painting.

Painting during the Pandyas 

Several mural paintings from the mid-9th century were found in the rock-excavated temples of Thirumalapuram and Sittannavasal.

Thirumalapuram Painting:

• The Thirumalapuram Rock Cut Caves showcase traces of early Pandya painting.
• On the roof, there are representations of small secondary deities (gana), including one riding a mythical lion. Lotus foliage with a naturalistic duck is also depicted.
• The paintings feature a sober range of colors: white, indigo, black, and light blue.
• A column's capital depicts dynamic figures, possibly hunters, accompanied by girls, a drum player, and several gana dancers.

Sittanavasal Painting:

• Despite significant damage, remnants of frescoes have been preserved on the upper parts of columns and ceilings within the cave temple.
• Fragments of paintings in the Jain cavern of Sittannavasal reveal two superimposed layers of frescoes, along with an inscription dating around 850.
• Frescoes from the Pandyan style, circa 850, adorn the ceiling, walls, and columns of the veranda.
• Notable frescoes include a heavily jeweled couple, two female dancers, and an enigmatic composition featuring a lotus tank with three men collecting flowers, fish, birds, and various quadrupeds, including elephants.
• The lotus tank fresco bears resemblance to Ajanta frescoes, evident in character simplicity, line purity, and color usage.
• The characters in the dancer and couple frescoes are reminiscent of Chola paintings, suggesting a later origin than the lotus tank fresco.
• The central fresco, depicting a lotus tank filled with monks, animals, flowers, swans, and fish, holds significant importance in Jainism.
• This scene refers to the Samava-sarvana, where Tirthankaras deliver sermons post-realization, attended by bulls, elephants, apsaras, and gods.
• The paintings were executed using the fresco-secco technique, with colors derived from minerals such as lime, wood charcoal, yellow ochre, red ochre, ultramarine/lapis lazuli, and terre verte.
• These decorative paintings, while similar to classical cave painting styles in Ajanta, exhibit minor material variations and link Ajanta paintings (4th–6th century AD) with Chola paintings of the 11th century in Thanjavur.
• Pillars featuring figurines of Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha (9th century AD) and his queen paying reverence to Ilam Gautaman, an acharya of Madura responsible for these paintings.

Paintings of the Cholas 

• Chola paintings were discovered on the walls of temples in Narthamalai, Malayadipatti, and Tanjore.
• Although inspired by Ajanta, Chola paintings belong to a different regional style and are considered qualitatively less significant.
• These paintings closely mirror the sculptural art of the time but are presented in a two-dimensional form, showcasing remarkable dynamism and aesthetic appeal.
• Chola paintings exhibit fine fresco techniques.
• The figures in Chola paintings have wide open eyes, contrasting with theAjanta tradition of half-closed drooping eyes.
• Some of the most important 11th-century AD frescoes were found in the vimana of Thanjavur.
• These frescoes mainly develop on the western wall of the pradakshina patha.
• One notable fresco depicts a guru meditating under a banyan tree, attending to the dance of celestial female dancers (apsaras) with a dynamic divine orchestra.
• The figures in these frescoes are full of movement and vitality.
• Other frescoes include scenes of musicians, a gentleman, and Shaiva scenes such as the wedding of Siva Tripurantaka on a chariot driven by Brahma and surrounded by four deities.
• In contrast to the dark color palette of Sittannavasal, which features dark browns and greens, the pictorial palette of Thanjavur is lively with warm ochers, pinks, and “golds” that enhance the rhythm of the characters.
• Religious themes dominate the art of early medieval South India, with architecture, sculpture, and painting being integrated in temple art.

Miniature Painting 

• Emergence of Miniature Painting: From the 11th century A.D. onwards, a new method of miniature painting on palm leaves and paper became popular. This technique was likely easier and more economical than previous methods.
• Focus on Manuscript Illustration: Medieval painting during this period was primarily focused on illustrating manuscripts. This art form was concentrated in three main regions of India:
• Bengal: Under the Pala and Sena dynasties.
• Gujarat: To the west of Bengal.
• Mysore: To the south of Bengal.
• Materials and Format: Manuscripts were often made of palm leaves, which dictated a long and narrow format, typically around 55 x 6 cm. When paper became more common towards the end of the 14th century, this format remained largely unchanged.

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Pala School (Bengal School) of painting 

• Illustrations from the religious texts on Buddhism and Jainism during the 11th-12th centuries A.D. represent the earliest examples of miniature painting in India.
• The Pala period (750 A.D. to the 12th century) witnessed a significant phase of Buddhism and Buddhist art in India.
• Buddhist monasteries like Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila, and Somarupa were major centers of Buddhist learning and art.
• These centers produced numerous manuscripts on palm-leaf with Buddhist themes, illustrated with images of deities. They also had workshops for casting bronze images.
• Students and pilgrims from South-East Asia came to these centers for education and took back examples of Pala Buddhist art, influencing regions like Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Java.
• The surviving Pala illustrated manuscripts predominantly belong to the Vajrayana School of Buddhism.
• Pala painting
• Sinuous lines and subdued color tones (indigo, cinnabar, green, yellow) arranged for a relief effect.
• Naturalistic style resembling contemporary bronze and stone sculpture, with influences from the classical art of Ajanta.
• Traditionalistic themes illustrated with finesse and attention to detail.
• A notable example of Pala-style illustrated manuscripts is the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita from the Library of Oxford, executed at Nalanda during the reign of King Ramapala.
• Pala art declined abruptly after the destruction of Buddhist monasteries by Muslim invaders in the 13th century.
• Some monks and artists fled to Nepal, helping to reinforce existing art traditions there.

Jain school of paintings 

• Western Indian painting, also known as Jaina Painting, is a traditional style of Indian miniature painting found in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Malwa.
• Gujarat School (12th-14th Centuries): Developed in a Jaina context, this school is known for its unique style, where characters are depicted with faces in three-quarters view and prominent eyes.
• Influence of Jainism: Similar to how Buddhism influenced the Ajanta and Pala arts, Jainism was the driving force behind artistic endeavors in Western India. The Chalukya Dynasty, which ruled from 961 AD to the late 13th century, patronized Jainism.
• During the 12th to 16th centuries, a vast number of Jain religious manuscripts were commissioned by princes, ministers, and wealthy Jain merchants to earn religious merit.
• Illustration Style: The illustrations in these manuscripts feature vigorous distortion, exaggerating physical traits such as enlarged eyes, breasts, and hips. Figures are flat with angular features and protruding eyes, characterized by primitive vitality, vigorous lines, and bold colors.
• The school is marked by simple, bright colors, conventionalized figures, and wiry, angular drawing, lacking the naturalism seen in early Indian wall painting.
• Figures are mostly shown from a frontal view with heads in profile, and the facial features resemble those in medieval sculpture and wall paintings at Ellora.
• Western Indian painting significantly influenced the development of painting in India, particularly in the Rājasthanī schools of western and central India.
• From around 1100 to 1400 AD, palm-leaf was used for manuscripts, later replaced by paper. Popular Jain texts like the Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya-Katha were frequently written and illustrated.
• In the 15th century, the Persian style began to influence Jaina painting, evident in Persian facial types and hunting scenes in some Kalpasutra manuscripts.
• The introduction of ultramarine blue and gold in Western Indian manuscripts is also attributed to the influence of Persian painting.

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Hoyasala painting 

In the Mysore region during the Hoysala period (11th-13th centuries), a palm manuscript depicting a Jaina theme was created and dated 1113.

• The style of this manuscript is less refined compared to Pala miniatures.
• However, it is more spontaneous and animated, showing a lively approach.
• The illustrations in the manuscript are bordered by beautiful plant or geometric motifs, which serve to separate them from the surrounding text.