Formation of States (Mahajanapadas): Republic and Monarchies | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Formation of States: Mahajanapadas (Monarchies and Republics)

Constituent Elements of the State (Saptanga Theory)
According to Kautilya in his work, the Saptanga theory, a state is composed of seven key elements:

• The King
• The Minister
• The Country
• The Fortified City
• The Treasury
• The Army
• The Ally

Formation of States (6th Century BC)

• Technological Advancements: The introduction of iron tools in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar around the 6th century BC, as revealed by archaeological sites like Rajghat and Chirand, facilitated the rise of large, militarily advanced territorial states.
• Role of Warrior Class: The warrior class became pivotal in these emerging states, contributing to their military strength and territorial expansion.
• Territorial Expansion: The concept of large territorial states, known as Mahajanapadas, gained prominence during this period, with towns serving as administrative and economic centers.
• Agricultural Surplus: Innovations in agricultural tools led to increased productivity, generating surplus food that sustained the ruling class and supported burgeoning towns.
• Urban Centers: Towns evolved as hubs of industry and trade. Key towns such as Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Kashi, and Pataliputra became vital to the economy of the Ganges plains, while others like Vaishali, Ujjain, Taxila, and Bharukachchha(Broach) had broader economic influence.
• Allegiance Shift: A shift in allegiance from tribal affiliations to territorial ties is noted, with people identifying more with the Janapada(territory) than the Jana(tribe).

Sodasha Mahajanapadas (16 Great States)

• In the post-Vedic period, the northern territory, especially north of the Vindhyas and extending from the North-West Frontier to Bihar, was divided into sixteen states known as Sodasha Mahajanapadas. These states were either monarchical or republican in nature.

Sixteen Great Nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas)

• The Buddhist and other texts refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) existing before the time of Buddha, with only Magadha receiving detailed historical accounts.

Geographical Distribution

• Majjhimadesa(Mid India): Fourteen of the Mahajanapadas were located here.
• Uttarapatha(North-West Division): Gandhara and Khamboja were situated in this region.

List of Mahajanapadas

• Kashi
• Koshala
• Anga
• Magadha
• Vajji (Vrijji)
• Malla
• Chetiya (Chedi)
• Vamsa (Vatsa)
• Kuru
• Panchala
• Machchha (Matsya)
• Shurasena
• Assaka (Ashmaka)
• Avanti
• Gandhara
• Kamboja

Variations in Lists

• The Mahavastu presents a similar list but replaces Gandhara and Kamboja with Shibi and Dasharna.
• The Digha Nikaya mentions only the first twelve Mahajanapadas, omitting the last four.
• The Jaina Bhagavati Sutra offers a different list, focusing on Madhydesa and excluding countries from Uttarapatha.

Types of States

• Monarchies (Rajyas)
• Non-Monarchical States (Ganas or Sanghas): These were oligarchies where power was exercised by a group of people. The terms ganas and sanghas are used interchangeably in the political context.

Powerful States

• In the 6th century BCE, the most powerful states included Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.

Inter-State Relations

• Relations among the states were dynamic, involving warfare, truces, and military alliances.
• Marriage alliances played a role in inter-state relations, although they were sometimes overshadowed by more direct political ambitions.

(1) Anga

• Around modern-day Bhagalpur and Munger districts in Bihar, the capital city of the Anga mahajanapada was Champa.
• It was bordered by Magadh to the west, the Raja Mahal hills to the east, the Ganga River to the north, and the Champa River, which separated it from Magadha, to the west.
• Anga was a significant center for trade and commerce, with its merchants frequently sailing to distant lands like Suvarnabhumi.
• During the reign of King Bimbisara, Anga was annexed by Magadha, marking Bimbisara's only conquest.

(2) Assaka

• The Assaka kingdom, located in southern India, had its capital at Potana, Potali, or Podana in present-day Maharashtra.
• According to Jataka stories, Assaka may have been influenced by Kashi at some point and achieved military success against Kalinga.
• During the time of the Buddha, the Assakas were situated along the banks of the Godavari River, making it the only mahajanapada south of the Vindhya mountains.
• The Assakas are also mentioned in the work of Panini

(3) Avanti

• Avanti was a significant kingdom in western India and one of the four major monarchies in post-Mahavira and Buddha India, alongside Kosala,Vatsa, and Magadha.
• It was divided into northern and southern regions by the Vetravati River.
• Initially, the capital of Southern Avanti was Mahissati(Sanskrit: Mahishamati), while Ujjaini(Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was the capital of northern Avanti. However, during the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini became the capital of the unified Avanti.
• Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini were located on the southern high road called Dakshinapatha, which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana(modern Paithan).
• Avanti roughly corresponds to modern Malwa,Nimar, and adjoining parts of Madhya Pradesh.
• It was a vital center for Buddhism, with many leading theras and theris being born and residing there.
• The Pradyota dynasty ruled over Avanti, with Pradyota being a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
• Pradyota waged war on Pushkarasarin, the king of Takshashila, and fortified Rajagriha to protect it from invasion.
• Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha, fortified Rajagriha to protect it from an invasion led by Pradyota.
• Pradyota’s chief queen was a disciple of the Buddhist monk Mahakatyayana and constructed a stupa in Ujjayini.
• The last king of Avanti,Nandivardhana, was defeated by Shishunaga of Magadha, leading to Avanti becoming part of the Magadhan empire.

(4) Chedi

• The Chedis, also known as Chetis, were located in eastern Bundelkhand near the Yamuna River, situated between the kingdoms of Kurus and Vatsas.
• The capital of the Chedis was Sotthivatinagara.
• According to the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, a branch of the Chedis established a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga.

(5) Gandhara

• Gandhara encompassed modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts of Pakistan and the Kashmir valley.
• Its capital,Takshashila(Taxila), was a prominent center of trade and learning, renowned for its university where scholars from around the world came for education.
• Famous figures such as Paṇini, an expert in grammar, and Kautiliya were products of Taxila University.
• During the mid-6th century BC, King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara was a contemporary of King Bimbisara of Magadha.
• Gandhara, situated on Uttarapatha, was a hub of international trade and communication, connecting ancient Iran and Central Asia.
• King Pukkusati maintained good relations with Magadha and achieved victory over Avanti.
• Gandhara was often politically associated with neighboring regions like Kashmir and Kamboja.
• The Behistun inscription of the Achaemenid emperor Darius indicates that Gandhara was conquered by the Persians in the late 6th century BCE.

(6) Kamboja

• Kamboja included areas around Rajaori, encompassing the Hazara district of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan.
• The capital,Rajpur(modern Rajori), was located around the Punchh area of Kashmir.
• The Kambojas were included in Uttarapatha, and ancient Kamboja comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush mountains.
• The Mahabharata mentions various Ganas (or Republics) of the Kambojas.
• Ancient texts like Kautiliya’s Arthashastra and Ashoka’s Edict No. XIII indicate that the Kambojas followed a republican constitution.
• While Paṇini’s Sutras suggest that Kamboja was a Kshatriya monarchy, the ruler's title implied a titular head.
• In the 6th century BC, the growing state of Magadha became the dominant power in ancient India, annexing several Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa(Madhyadesa).
• The Puranas mention that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, referring to Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas, and other tribes of eastern Punjab.
• The Kambojans and Gandharans did not have direct contact with Magadha until the rise of Chandragupta and Kautiliya.
• Both regions fell under the control of the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus(558–530 BC) or in the early years of Darius.
• Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi(modern Begram).

(7) Kashi

• The Kingdom of Kashi was located between the Varuna and Asi rivers, which defined its northern and southern boundaries, respectively. The capital city Varanasi derived its name from these rivers.
• Before the time of the Buddha, Kashi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Jataka tales highlight the superiority of its capital over other Indian cities and its prosperity.
• The Jatakas recount a long-standing rivalry between Kashi and the kingdoms of Kosala,Anga, and Magadha.
• Kashi was eventually absorbed into the Kosalan kingdom during the Buddha's time.
• During the Buddha's era, Kashi became a leading center for textile production, particularly known for the Kashya, orange-brown robes worn by Buddhist monks.

(8) Kosala

• Kosala was bordered by the Sadanira(Gandak) river to the east, the Gomati river to the west, the Sarpika or Syandika(Sai) river to the south, and the Nepal hills to the north.
• Its territory corresponds to modern Awadh in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• The Sarayu river divided Kosala into northern and southern parts, with Shravasti as the capital of north Kosala and Kushavati as the capital of south Kosala. Other significant towns included Saketa and Ayodhya.
• The kingdom was ruled by the renowned king Prasenjit during the times of Mahavira and Buddha.
• Prasenjit was well-educated and strengthened his position through a matrimonial alliance with Magadha, marrying his sister to Bindhusara and giving part of Kashi as dowry.
• Kosala successfully conquered Kashi and extended its influence over the Sakyas of Kapilavastu.
• Kosala and Magadha were linked through matrimonial ties during the reign of Prasenjit and Bimbisara, but eventually, a bitter conflict arose between the two kingdoms.
• Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha during the rule of Vidudabha.

(9) Kuru

• The Kuru kingdom roughly corresponded to modern Thanesar,Delhi, and Meerut districtof Uttar Pradesh.
• According to Buddhist tradition, the Kuru kingdom was ruled by kings from the Yuddhitthila gotta family, such as Yudhishthira, with their capital at Indapatta (Indraprastha), near modern Delhi.
• The Kurus established matrimonial alliances with the Yadavas,Bhojas, and Panchalas.
• At the time of the Buddha, the Kuru kingdom was governed by a titular chieftain named Korayvya. During this period, the Kurus had transitioned from their earlier prominence in the Vedic period.
• Though originally a well-known monarchical people, the Kurus adopted a republican form of government between the 6th and 5th centuries BC.
• In the 4th century BC, Kautiliya’s Arthashastra also noted the Kuru following the Rajashabdopajivin(king consul) constitution.

(10) Magadha

• Magadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous mahajanapadas of ancient India.
• The capital city,Pataliputra(modern Patna, Bihar), was strategically located at the confluence of major rivers like the Ganga,Son,Punpun, and Gandak.
• The region’s alluvial plains and proximity to iron-rich areas in Bihar and Jharkhand enabled the production of high-quality weapons and supported a robust agrarian economy.
• These factors contributed to Magadha’s emergence as the most prosperous state of its time.
• Magadha roughly corresponded to modern Patna and Gaya districts in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal to the east

Republics and Monarchies in Ancient India

• The transition from the tribal political organization of the Rig Vedic phase to territorial states marked the end of the Vedic period. By the sixth century B.C., the concept of territory had gained strength, leading to the emergence of large states with towns as their centers of power.
• Buddhist literature, especially the Anguttara Nikaya, identifies the sixteenth mahajanapadas, which can be categorized into monarchies and republics (Ganas or Sanghas).

Republics (Ganas or Sanghas)

The republics were characterized by a more egalitarian social structure. For instance, the Vajji and Malia mahajanapadas were renowned as sanghas. Other notable republics mentioned in Buddhist texts include:

• Sakyas of Kapilvastu
• Koliyas of Dvadaha and Ramagrama
• Bulis of Alakappa
• Kalamas of Kesaputta
• Moriyas of Pipphalivaha
• Bhaggas(Bhargas) with their capital on Sumsumara hill

These republics were primarily situated in the Indus basin or near the Himalayan foothills, especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

In gana-sangha societies, people were treated as equals, at least among the ruling clans. They rejected the Vedic philosophy, which divided society into four distinct classes or varnas. Instead, new Buddhist and Jaina ideas gained popularity among the people.

Sources of Information about Republics

• Various Indian texts, including Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain literature, provide information about non-monarchical states known as Ganas or Sanghas. This is supported by the accounts of Greek historians who documented Alexander’s campaigns in India.
• Buddhist texts offer insights into the functioning of the Sakya assembly, which convened to discuss important matters such as forging alliances, declaring war, and establishing peace. Comparatively, more details about ganas are found in Buddhist and Jaina texts than in Brahmanical ones since kingship was central to Brahmanical ideology.
• References to Brahmanas and purohitas are scarce in the context of gana polities, as seen in the Ambattha Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, where members of the Sakya assembly ridicule the Brahmana Ambattha.
• In some literary sources, such as Panini’s Ashtadhyayi and the Majjhima Nikaya, the terms gana and sangha are used interchangeably to describe political entities.
• The Arthasastra mentions various corporations like the Lichchavikas, Vrijjikas, and Madras, each with a governing assembly whose members were called Rajas.
• Coins also provide evidence of non-monarchical polities, with the term gana appearing on coins of the Yaudheyas and Malavas. Greek writers, such as Megasthenes and Arrian, further corroborate the existence of republics in ancient India. Megasthenes noted that many Indian cities had democratic forms of government, while Arrian highlighted the contrast between places governed by kings and those that were self-governed.

Types of Republics/Ganas

• Those comprising all or a section of one clan, such as the Sakyas, Koliyas, and Mallas.

• Those consisting of a confederation of several clans, like the Vajjis, Yadavas, and Vrishnis.

Factors Behind the Rise of Republics in Ancient India

The emergence of republics in ancient India can be attributed to a reaction against the societal norms and practices that had developed during the later Vedic period. Several key factors contributed to this shift:

1. Reaction Against Vedic Life

• The republics originated as a response to the class and gender distinctions that were becoming more pronounced during the later Vedic period.
• There was a growing discontent with superstitious religious practices that adversely affected cattle stock, a vital resource for agrarian societies.
• The hereditary kingship, supported by the Brahmanas who claimed various privileges, was also a target of criticism.

2. Legacy of Vedic Tribes

• Some republics, particularly in the Indus basin, may have been remnants of Vedic tribes.
• In regions like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, there might have been a revival of old tribal ideals that emphasized equality over the authority of a raja (king).

3. Inspiration from Pre-Vedic Traditions

• The movement against Vedic orthodoxy drew inspiration from traditions of a time when there were no varna distinctions and no dominant upper classes.
• This historical recollection possibly explains the legends of republics replacing monarchies.

4. Breakaway from Monarchies

• Many republics were formed by groups that broke away from existing monarchies and moved to new territories.
• For instance, regions like Videha and Vaishali were originally monarchies that transformed into republics.

5. Socio-Political Conditions

• Initially, the ruling class obtained wealth through war booty and tributes from conquered non-Aryans. Over time, tribal chiefs who became hereditary royals claimed all revenues for themselves.
• This led to resentment among leading tribe members who demanded rights to tax collection and military maintenance, ultimately giving rise to republics.

6. Evolution from Monarchies

• Some ganas (republics) evolved from monarchies over time, while others may have been more complex forms of older tribal setups.
• For example, the Videhas transitioned from a monarchy to a gana by the 6th century BCE.

7. Political Framework

• The political framework of republics often included assemblies that governed territories, with rights to govern restricted to a few ruling families.
• The central feature of these ‘republican’ governments was their corporate nature, with representatives from tribes and clan heads participating in public assemblies.

8. Non-Hereditary Leadership

• Unlike monarchies, the chief executive of tribal states was not a hereditary position. For instance, in a later Buddhist story, a youngest son was allowed to succeed his father, indicating that the office belonged to the assembly rather than the family.

9. Assembly Decision-Making

• All significant decisions were made by unanimity among assembly members, contributing to the perception of these states as democratic.
• However, the real power often lay with tribal oligarchies rather than a democratic majority, as the assemblies were dominated by a few elite families.

10. Oligarchic Features

• Despite the absence of a monarchy, the republics were not democracies in the true sense. Power was concentrated in the hands of an aristocracy, with key positions held by heads of leading families.
• For instance, in the republics of the Sakyas and Lichchhavis, the ruling class belonged to the same clan and varna (mostly Kshatriya), excluding other groups like Brahmanas, farmers, and artisans from political participation.

11. Administrative Structure

• The administrative machinery of these republics was relatively simple, often comprising positions like raja(king),uparaja(vice-king),senapati(commander), and bhandaganka(treasurer).
• Court systems, such as the seven courts in the Lichchhavi republic, were established for legal matters, although their effectiveness is debated.

12. War Declaration Rights

• In some cases, the right to declare war was attributed to the elder members of aristocratic families, showcasing the power dynamics within these assemblies.

Example of Lichchhavis:

• The Lichchhavis of Vaishali had, according to the Ekapana Jataka, 7707 rajas to govern the realm, and a similar number of uparajas (subordinate kings), senapatis (military commanders) and bhandagarikas (treasurers) and they were all given to argument and disputation. The Mahavastu, however, puts the number at 168,000 rajas in Vaishali.
• These figures should not be taken literally but they definitely suggest that the Lichchhavis had a large assembly, comprising the heads of Kshatriya families who called themselves rajas. They usually met once a year to transact public business and elect their leader, who had a fixed tenure.
• The uparajas may have been the eldest sons of the rajas.
• The Lichchhavi assembly had sovereign power and could pronounce death or exile punishments.
• Daily administrative matters were dealt with by a smaller council of nine men in the name of larger assembly.
• Women, significantly, were not included in the assembly.
• It is possible, even likely, that the procedures of the Buddhist monastic order (sangha) were patterned on the sangha polities, especially the Lichchhavis.

Influence of the Monarchies:

• Members of the republican assembly bore the title raja or king.
• The head of the state was a senapati, the term denoting commander of the army in the monarchical system.
• Even the officers of the republics bore the same titles as their counterparts in the contemporary monarchies.
• Such common terms as mahamatta(mahamatya) and amachchha(amatya) were used to describe officers both in the republics and the kingdoms.
• This proves that post-Vedic republics were greatly influenced by the monarchies of the time.

In any case certain states in the age of the Buddha were not ruled by hereditary kings, but by persons who were responsible to the assemblies.

Other Characteristics of Gana Sanghas

• The gana sanghas had two divisions in the societies—the kshatriya rajakula or the ruling families and the dasa karmakara or slaves and labourers.
• Gana sanghas did not observe a varna society.
• These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.
• The rajas sat as representatives in the assembly meetings of the ruling families. He enjoyed social and political powers.
• In a gana sangha land was owned by the clan, but the hired labourers and slaves worked on it.
• The Kshatriya political elite were probably also the largest landowners in the ganas.
• Walter Ruben suggests that the clan exercised rights over land, and private property may have been absent.
• The gana sanghas tolerated individual and independent opinions and unorthodox views.
• The gana sanghas ruled over a small geographical area.
• Gana-sangha an be seen as a proto state.
• It was unlike a kingdom, since power was diffused,stratification of society was limited an ramification of administration and coercive authority was not extensive.
• Despite being conquered periodically,resilience of Gana-angha was demonstrated by their reappearance and continued presence until mid-1st millennium AD.Though The republican tradition became weak from maurya period onwards.

Differences with Monarchies

• In the monarchies the king claimed to be the sole recipient of revenue from the peasants, but in the republics this claim was advanced by every tribal oligarch who was known as raja.
• Each one of the 7707 Lichchhavi rajas maintained his store-house and apparatus of administration.
• Again,every monarchy maintained its regular standing army and did not permit any group or groups of people to keep arms within its boundaries.
• But in a tribal oligarchy each raja was free to maintain his own little army under his senapati, so that each of them could compete with the other.
• The brahrnanas exorcized great influence in monarchy, but they had no place in the early republics, nor did they recognize these states in their law-books because they did not get privilege in republics like they got in monarchies.
• The main difference between a monarchy and a republic lay in the fact that the latter functioned under the leadership of oligarchic assemblies and not of an individual, as was the case with the former.
• Unlike monarchies, the kingship in the republics was not supposed to be hereditary. The chief was usually elected and was known as mahasammata, the great elect.
• Whereas the monarchies were concentrated in the Gangetic Plains, the republics were ranged round the northern periphery of these kingdoms-in the foothills of the Himalayas and just south of these, and in north-western India in modern Punjab.
• Size of states near foothill were smaller in comparison to Gangetic plain and so it was easy to maintain republic form of government as kings would have been represented easily in the assembly of smaller states.
• If states become big, due to several factors like distance, it was not possible to have representative for of government.

Factors Responsible for Decline of Republics

• The republican tradition became feeble from the Maurya period. Even in pre-Maurya times, monarchies were far stronger and common.
• The history of the gana s of ancient India spanned a thousand years or so. They were eventually defeated by the monarchical states.
• Their military defeats at the hands of monarchical states can be seen as a result of the inability of their system of governance and military organization to meet the challenges of empire building.
• The chief cause of decline of the republics was internal quarrels between clans and groups in the state.
• Due to internal conflict only,great republics of Andhaka-Vrishnis, the Vajjis and the Videhas were destroyed.
• Their greatest asset – governance through discussion – proved to be their greatest weakness as well because it paved the way for internal dissension, particularly when threatened by the aggressive monarchies.
• The ambitions of monarchical states were reflected in the political vocabulary of the time, in terms such as chakravartin,samrat, and sarvabhauma. These signified a ‘universal ruler’, one who aimed at establishing his rule over all of Jambudvipa, i.e., the subcontinent. Several centuries later, the rulers of Magadha succceeded in translating this ambition into reality.
• Power in the republics was concentrated in the hands of a few clans who were not ready to give to other sections of the society.
• The Kshatriyas did not consider other classes of society equal to them, hence, they were not in a position to increase the circle of their influence.
• As a result, compared to their monarchical counterparts their power essentially remained modest.
• Republics did not stick to principle of the election of the most meritorious person as the leadership was given to person on the basis of birth and the principle of hereditary succession was slowly introduced, sacrificing foundation principle of the gana – samghas.
• Caste arrogance and caste system was one of the reasons for the decline of the republics because the republics could not accept the people born in other castes on the basis of equality.
• As a result, despite having democratic ideology the republics could not bring about unity in their own state.
• Kautilya‘s Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, outlines the special strategies that a would be conqueror could use to vanquish the ganas and these were directed towards creating dissension among their ranks.
• Empire building and universal rule, the ambitions of monarchical states, spurred their military victories over the ganas, whose system of governance and military organization were unable to meet these challenges.
• Unlike the monarchies,standing armies might not have existed in the ganas.
• The Lichchhavis had a strong army but, when not engaged in battle, the soldiers probably retired to their lands.
• Most of the ganas, especially the politically important ones, were located in or near the Himalayan foothills in eastern India, while the major kingdoms occupied the fertile alluvial tracts of the Ganga valley. Due to this ganas lacked resources vis-a-vis monarchies.
• The republics due to their small size and limited resources could not match the strength of monarchies.
• After the decline of the Mauryas the republics again raised their heads and flourished for a couple of centuries but ultimately all these republican states were destroyed by the imperial Guptas who pursued the policy of extension of the empire and that of annexing the neighbouring states. A few of them were destroyed by Chandra Gupta I, most of them by Samudra Gupta and the rest of them by Chandra Gupta II.

The Kingdom (Monarchy)

• A kingdom means a territory ruled by a king or queen. In the 6th century B.C. along with the gana sanghas some kingdoms also emerged particularly in the Ganges plains. The land of these kingdoms was more fertile and people settled there at a later period than the gana sanghas.
• In a kingdom, the king enjoyed the sovereign power. All functions of the government centered round him. The king could compel obedience to laws and use force if necessary. There were customary laws of jatis and the region. Obedience to these two types of laws continued throughout ages. In a kingdom a family which rules over a long period becomes a dynasty.
• A king was assisted by advisory councils such as sabha and parisad. Earlier, people were more loyal to the clans. It weakened in a kingdom. Loyalty was shifted to the caste of an individual and to the king. Kingdoms were expanded over a large area and it weakened the popular assemblies. Three important kingdoms of this period were Kasi,Kosala, and Magadha. They often fought for the control of the Ganges plains for strengthening defence and economy.

Important Characteristics of a Kingdom :

• Kingship was attributed to the wishes of God.
• Importance of the priests and Vedic rituals increased.
• Earlier, there was a rivalry between the brahmanas (priests) and kshatriyas (rulers), but in a kingdom they supported each other.
• Instead of voluntary tributes of the earlier period, kings started collecting compulsory taxes. like bali, bhaga, kara and sulka or toll duties.
• There was a clear division between the ruler and the ruled,the rich and the poor.
• Some individuals or families possessed more lands than the others.
• The state had all rights over unused lands.
• After clearing wastelands or unused land the king received a tax from the cultivators, which was usually one sixth of the produce.
• In a kingdom the state generally controlled the means of production and distribution.