Spread of Jainism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Emergence of Heterodox Sects

• The sixth century B.C. was a crucial period in Indian history, witnessing the rise of new religions.
• During this time, there was a growing opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas, leading to the emergence of various heterodox religious movements in the middle Gangetic plains.
• As many as 62 religious sects were identified, among which Buddhism and Jainism became the most popular and well-organized religions.
• The new religious ideas of this period were a response to the prevailing social, economic, and religious conditions.
• Changes in social and economic life, such as the growth of towns, the expansion of the artisan class, and the rapid development of trade and commerce, were closely linked to shifts in religion and philosophical speculation.
• The period was marked by the presence of parivrajakas or sramanas, who renounced household life and wandered from place to place to engage in discussions and spread their ideas.
• These sramanas were united in their opposition to the Brahmanical tradition centered on the cult of sacrifice and the priestly claims of social pre-eminence.
• Their ideas ranged from annihilationism(Ucchedavada) to eternalism(Sashvatvarda), from the fatalism of the Ajivikas to the materialism of the Charavakas.

Causes for the Rise and Growth of Heterodox Sects

Social Condition:

• In post-Vedic times, society was divided into four varnas: brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas, and shudras.
• Each varna had well-defined functions, with the brahmanas claiming the highest status and demanding privileges such as exemption from taxes and punishment.
• The kshatriyas ranked second, responsible for governance and warfare, while the vaishyas engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing, and trade.
• The shudras were meant to serve the other three varnas and were barred from Vedic studies.
• The varna-divided society generated tensions, particularly kshatriyas, who protested against the brahmanas' ritualistic dominance.
• Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, both from kshatriya clans, challenged the authority of the brahmanas.

Economic Condition:

• The rise of new religions was driven by a new agricultural economy in north-eastern India.
• The use of iron tools in the middle Gangetic plains facilitated forest clearance, agriculture, and large settlements.
• The agricultural economy relied on animal husbandry, but Vedic practices of cattle sacrifice hindered progress.
• New peasant communities opposed cattle killing for sacrifices, leading to the adoption of Ahimsa by heterodox sects.
• The period saw the emergence of cities in north-eastern India, with artisans and traders using coins for the first time, promoting trade and commerce.
• The vaishyas, seeking to improve their social status, supported Mahavira and Buddha, as Jainism and Buddhism initially disregarded the varna system.
• These sects preached non-violence, promoting peace and commerce, appealing to the vaishyas.
• Jainism and Buddhism rejected material wealth, advocating for ascetic living, resonating with those discontented by social inequalities and the new material life.

Religious Conditions:

• Vedic religious practices became cumbersome and often meaningless in the new social context.
• Sacrifices and rituals grew more elaborate and expensive, leading to the dominance of the Brahmanas, who monopolized religious rites.
• The growing importance of these practices established the Brahmanas' high status in a society now divided into varnas.
• Vedic rituals lost relevance to many, paving the way for alternative religious orders.

Political Conditions:

• Kshatriyas gained political power in monarchies and gana-samghas, resisting Brahmanical dominance.
• Constant wars among emerging kingdoms and discontented merchants led people to seek peaceful, non-violent religions.
• Buddha and Mahavira were not the first to criticize Vedic beliefs; earlier preachers like Kapila and Makkali Gosala had also condemned Vedic practices.
• New philosophies were being preached, but it was Buddha and Mahavira who offered a viable alternative religious order.

Jainism

Origin and Beliefs

• Jainism is an ancient religion from India that emphasizes harmlessness and renunciation as the path to liberation and bliss. It focuses on the welfare of every being in the universe and the health of the universe itself.
• The Jainas believe in 24 tirthankaras, or great teachers, who are the leaders of their religion. The first tirthankara is Rishabhadev, believed to have been born in Ayodhya.
• The twenty-third tirthankara is Parshvanath, who renounced royal life to become an ascetic. Mahavira is considered the twenty-fourth and final tirthankara.
• The names of some tirthankaras, like Rishabha and Arishtanemi, are mentioned in ancient texts like the Rig Veda.
• The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. The mythology of the tirthankaras, most of whom were born in the middle Ganga basin and attained nirvana in Bihar, was likely created to give Jainism a sense of antiquity.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Vardhamana Mahavira, regarded as the founder of Jainism, was the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara. He was born in 540 B.C. in Kundagrama near Vaishali, in present-day Bihar.
• His father, Siddartha, was the head of the Jnatrika clan, and his mother, Trishala, was related to the royal family of Magadha. Mahavira was married to Yashoda, and they had a daughter named Annoja.
• Initially, Mahavira lived as a householder, but at the age of 30, he renounced his family and became an ascetic in search of truth. After twelve years of wandering and penance, he attained omniscience (Kaivalya) at the age of 42 under a Sal tree near the river Rijupalika in Muzaffarpur district, Bihar.
• After attaining enlightenment, Mahavira became known as Kevalin (Omniscient), Jina (Conqueror), and Mahavira (the Great Hero). He led a sect called Nigranthas (free from fetters), which later became known as Jainism.
• For the next 30 years, Mahavira preached his doctrines across regions like Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, and Champa. He would wander for eight months each year and spend the four months of the rainy season in a notable town of eastern India. He often visited the courts of kings Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.
• Mahavira died at the age of seventy-two in Pava (near Rajagriha) by self-starvation (Sallekana) in 468 B.C.

Teachings of Mahavira

• Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas, Vedic rituals, and Brahmin supremacy. Jainism focuses on attaining freedom from worldly bonds through right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct, without the need for rituals.
• He advocated for an austere and simple life aimed at achieving Kaivalya (nirvana or moksha). Mahavira emphasized a more austere life compared to his predecessor Parshva, leading to the later division of Jainism into two sects: Shvetambaras (those who wear white clothes) and Digambaras (those who are naked).
• Unlike Buddhism, Mahavira did not condemn the varna system. He believed that a person's varna is determined by their actions in previous births. However, he also recognized that individuals from lower castes could achieve liberation through virtuous lives.
• Mahavira acknowledged the existence of gods but placed them below the jina. He taught that the universe is not created, maintained, or destroyed by a personal god but by universal laws. He believed that all objects, animate or inanimate, possess varying degrees of consciousness and can feel pain when harmed.
• He emphasized the concepts of karma and the transmigration of the soul. The influx of karma (Asrav) binds the soul by creating layers that overshadow its pure character, leading to the cycle of birth and death. Jainism teaches that the main goal of human life is the purification of the soul and the attainment of nirvana (moksha), which signifies freedom from birth and death.
• This can be achieved through the pursuit of Triratna (three jewels) and Panchamahavrata (five great vows). The Triratna consists of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, which are essential for liberation.
• Right conduct involves observing the Panchamahavrata: ahimsa (non-violence), satya vachana (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (continence), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
• To attain Nirvana, one must abandon all attachments, including clothing. The path to liberation involves fasting, self-mortification, study, and meditation, making a monastic life essential for salvation. Householders are expected to observe milder forms of these virtues called Anuvrata (small vows) compared to monks.
• While Brahmanism was ritual-oriented, Jainism is conduct-oriented, focusing on ethical living and personal conduct.

Three Jewels

• The aim of Jain life is to achieve liberation of the soul by following the three jewels of Jain ethics: right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.
• Right faith(Samyak darshana) means seeing things clearly, avoiding preconceptions and superstitions. It involves belief in True Prophets, True Scriptures, and True Preceptors.
• Right knowledge(Samyak jnana) involves having accurate knowledge of the real universe, including the five substances and nine truths. It is divided into five categories: sensory knowledge, study knowledge, remote knowledge, mind reading knowledge, and omniscience.
• Right conduct(Samyak charitra) means living according to Jain ethical rules, avoiding harm to living things, and freeing oneself from attachment and impure thoughts.
• A person with right faith and right knowledge will naturally achieve right conduct. The main goal is to liberate the soul by following the Jain ethical code.

Five Main Vows

• Mahavira added the doctrine of Brahmacharya (continence) to the four vows of ahimsa, satya, asateya, and aparigraha prescribed by Parshvanatha.
• Jainism encourages spiritual development through personal wisdom and self-control through vows. There are different levels of compliance for strict followers and laymen.
• The five major vows are:
• Ahimsa(nonviolence): Causing no harm to living beings, minimizing intentional and unintentional harm through actions, speech, or thoughts.
• Satya(truth): Always speaking the truth. If speaking the truth could lead to violence, silence may be observed.
• Asteya(not stealing): Not taking anything that is not willingly offered. Extorting material wealth or exploiting the weak is considered theft.
• Brahmacharya(chastity for laymen and celibacy for Jain monks and nuns): Control over the senses to limit sexual activity.
• Aparigraha(non-possessiveness): Non-materialism and non-attachment to objects, places, and people. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations.

Four Main Forms of Existence

• Jaina doctrine recognizes four main forms of existence: gods (deva), humans (manushya), hell beings (naraki), and animals and plants (tiryancha).
• The animal and plant category is further divided based on sense faculties. The lowest category comprises single-sense bodies (ekendriya).
• The lowest of these are the nigodas, tiny organisms with only the sense of touch. Their life lasts a fraction of a second, and they are believed to be everywhere, even inhabiting the bodies of plants, animals, and people.
• Above the nigodas are single-sense organisms inhabiting various elements (sthavara), such as earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, and air bodies. Plant beings, although having only one sense (touch), have a more complex structure and longer life than nigodas.
• Animals are higher in the scale due to having two to five senses, with those possessing all five senses further classified into instinctive and reasoning categories.

Other Teachings of Jainism: Jaina Philosophy and Beliefs

Jaina philosophy is fundamentally based on dualism, which posits that the human personality is composed of two essential elements: Jiva (soul) and Ajiva (matter).

Jiva (Soul)

• The concept of Jiva refers to the soul, which is considered to be infinite in number and varies in its capacity for knowledge, power, and joy. The essence of Jiva is consciousness, power, and bliss. 
• Jivas are indestructible and eternal, and their progress leads to salvation.

Ajiva (Matter)

• Ajiva encompasses matter, space, motion (dharma), rest (adharma), and time (kala). Unlike Jivas, Ajivas are destructible. 
• The interaction between Jivas and Ajivas creates energies that result in birth, death, and various life experiences. These energies can be destroyed through discipline, leading to salvation or nirvana.

The Seven Tattvas
The interaction between the living (soul) and non-living (matter) leads to the generation of energies, which can be destroyed through discipline. This concept is summarized in the seven tattvas or truths:

• There is something called the living.
• There is something called the non-living.
• The two come into contact with each other.
• The contact leads to the production of energies.
• The process of contact could be stopped.
• The existing energies could be exhausted.
• Salvation could be achieved.

Based on these propositions, Jaina philosophy emphasizes the importance of destroying Karma to attain Nirvana. This can be achieved by avoiding evil Karma first and then other Karmas. The observance of panchamahavrata (five great vows) helps in this process.

Extreme Non-Violence

• Ahimsa (Non-Violence): Jainism places a strong emphasis on non-violence, both in theory and practice. This principle prohibits war and agriculture, as both involve the killing of living beings. As a result, Jains primarily engage in trade and mercantile activities.
• Strict Vegetarianism: Strict vegetarianism is a crucial dietary rule for Jains. Certain foods like figs, honey, and alcohol are forbidden due to the belief that they contain nigodas(microscopic organisms). Even the meat of animals that died a natural death is not consumed because dead flesh is considered a breeding ground for nigodas.
• Renunciant vs. Layperson: While laypersons are expected to avoid harming beings with two or more senses, renunciants must refrain from harming even single-sense beings (ekendriya) and element bodies (sthavara). For example, monks and nuns must not dig the earth, bathe, swim, or walk in the rain to avoid harming earth and water bodies, respectively.

Monastic Life and Anekantavada

• Monastic Life: Jainism believes that monastic life is essential for attaining salvation, and householders cannot achieve it.
• Anekantavada (Syadavada): One of the distinguishing features of Jainism is the concept of anekantavada, which suggests that truth can be viewed from various angles. The Jaina doctrine of Syadvada emphasizes caution in making statements, acknowledging that opposite statements are possible, and that there are seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi).
• Creation in Jainism: Jainism posits that the world was never created; it is eternal and exists in an infinite number of cycles, each consisting of a period of improvement (utsarpini) and a period of decline (avasarpini). Currently, we are in the phase of decline, which is divided into six periods. Jainas do not believe in the existence of a Creator.

Schisms in Jainism

Spread of Jainism in South India

• The spread of Jainism in South India is attributed to a severe famine that occurred in Magadha around 200 years after the death of Mahavira.
• This famine lasted for twelve years and prompted many Jaina monks to migrate south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.
• Some monks, led by Sthulabahu, stayed back in Magadha.
• After the famine, the returning monks from the south developed differences with the local Jainas.

Division of Jainas

• The differences in the code of conduct between the returning monks and those who stayed led to the division of Jainas into Digambaras(southerners, meaning "sky-clad" or naked) and Svetambaras(Magadhans, meaning "white-clad").
• Over time, further splits occurred within both traditions.

Differences in Practices

• The most significant difference between Digambara and Svetambara monks is their approach to clothing.
• Both traditions agree that Mahavira and his early disciples were naked.
• The Digambaras strictly follow this tradition, insisting that monks must renounce all possessions, including clothes.
• They allow monks to carry only a small broom for brushing away insects and a water gourd for hygiene.
• The Svetambaras, however, wear white robes and believe that nudity is no longer necessary.

Jaina Councils

• The First Jaina Council was held at Pataliputra under the leadership of Sthulabahu in the early third century B.C.
• It aimed to compile 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.
• The Digambaras boycotted the council and rejected its decisions.

Second Jaina Council

• The Second Jaina Council took place at Valabhi in Gujarat during the fifth century A.D.
• Organized by the Svetambaras under Devardhi Kshamasramana, it led to the final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Jaina Church

• The Jaina Church was founded by Mahavira, who had eleven ardent disciples called ganadharas.
• Only Arya Sudharman survived Mahavira and became the first thera(pontiff) of the Jaina Church.
• Successors included Jambu and Sambhutavijaya, who perfected the fourteen Purvas.
• Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya, documented the history of the Jaina Church in the Jaina Kalpasutra.

Jaina Philosophy

• Jainism, based on Mahavira's teachings, divides reality into Jivas(souls) and Ajivas(non-souls).
• Jivas are infinite, with varying degrees of knowledge, power, and bliss, while Ajivas include matter, space, motion, rest, and time.
• The world is eternal, divided into cycles of improvement and decline.
• Jains believe in perfected souls rather than a Creator, emphasizing the doctrine of Anekantavada.
• They practice Syadvada and Nayavada, recognizing multiple viewpoints and cautious statement-making.
• Jainism emphasizes five sources of knowledge and Ahimsa(non-violence), advocating monastic life for salvation.

Spread of Jainism

• To spread Jainism, Mahavira organized an order of followers, accepting both men and women.
• His teachings gained popularity, attracting various sections of society.
• Jainism struggled to distinguish itself from Brahmanical religion, limiting its success in the Gangetic plain.
• However, it gradually spread into south and west India, where Brahmanical influence was weaker.
• The migration of Jainas to the south during the famine contributed to this spread.
• Early Jainas discarded Sanskrit in favor of the Prakrit language to preach their doctrines.
• Mahavira’s disciples, known as Ganadharas, played a crucial role in the dissemination of Jainism.
• Epigraphic evidence for the spread of Jainism in Karnataka dates back to the third century A.D.
• Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth century B.C. and reached Tamil Nadu by the second and first centuries B.C.
• During the Kushana period, Jainism flourished in Mathura and was dominant in eastern India during Harsha’s time.
• From the fifth century A.D. onwards, various South Indian royal dynasties patronized Jainism.
• Jainism eventually penetrated Malwa,Gujarat, and Rajasthan.

Jaina Literature

• Jaina literature was composed in Ardhamagadhi form of Prakrit, with texts compiled in the sixth century A.D.
• The adoption of Prakrit by Jainas fostered the language's growth and its literature.
• Many regional languages, including Marathi, evolved from Prakrit languages.
• Jainas produced significant works in Apabhramsha and established its first grammar.
• According to tradition, the original doctrines of Mahavira were preserved in 14 old texts known as purvas.

Jaina Canonical Texts

• The sacred literature of the Svetambaras, written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit, comprises twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirna, six Chhedasutras, and four Mulasutras.
• In the first Council at Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra divided the Jaina canon into 12 Angas, a division accepted by the Svetambaras but rejected by the Digambaras.
• The 12 Angas include the Ayaramga-sutta(Acharanga sutra), which outlines the code of conduct for Jaina monks, and the Sutrakritanga, which refutes heretical doctrines.
• The Bhagavati sutta is a significant Jaina canonical text that provides a comprehensive exposition of Jaina doctrine.
• At the second Council held at Vallabhi, new additions in the form of Upangas were made, with the 12 Upangas being mostly dogmatic and mythological in nature.
• The ten Prakrinas, written in verse, address various doctrinal matters.
• The six Chhedasutras pertain to disciplinary rules for monks and nuns, with the Kalpasutra, attributed to Bhadrabahu, being the best-known work.
• The Kalpasutra, part of the fourth Chhedasutra, consists of three sections: Jainacharita, Theravali, and Samachari.

Non-canonical works

• Non-canonical works encompass commentaries, stories, historical and semi-historical accounts, romances, and religious lyrics.
• Commentaries on canonical texts, known as Niryuktis, date back to the time of Bhadrabahu and were later developed into Bhasyas, Churnis, Tikas, and Vrittis.
• Notable Jaina commentators include Haribhadra,Santisuri,Devendragani, and Abhayadeva.
• The Kathakosa is a collection of stories, including the Jaina version of the Nala-Damayanti episode from the Mahabharata.
• The Jainas also possess an extensive poetic literature called Prabandhas and Charitras, with the Trisastisalaka Purushacharita by Hemachandra being a notable work.
• Semi-historical works like Prabandhachitamani and Prabandhakosa are significant, with the Charitras styled as Puranas by the Digambaras.
• Jinasena wrote the Harivamsapurana, completed in 783 A.D., and the Jainas have many prose romances like Samaraichchakaha and Upamitibha-Vaprapanchakatha.

Jaina Architecture

• The numerous examples of Jaina sculpture discovered across almost all regions of India indicate that the Jainas have been commissioning sculptors since ancient times. The most prevalent form of sculpture, even today, is the modeling of images or statues of their Tirthankaras.
• However, the Jaina religion has established strict guidelines regarding the form and pose of Tirthankara statues since the very beginning, leaving no room for individual sculptors' creativity. As a result, nearly all Jaina images belong to a single category, making it difficult to distinguish Jaina images from different eras based on style alone.
• Jainism did not develop a unique architectural style; instead, the Jainas adopted local building traditions wherever they settled. For instance, in Northern India, the Jainas followed the Vaisnava architectural style, while in Southern India, they adhered to the Dravidian style. Jaina stupas are virtually indistinguishable from Buddhist stupas, and Jaina curvilinear steeples closely resemble those of Brahmanical temples.
• Similar to the Buddhists, Jainas also constructed several cave-temples carved into rocks from ancient times. However, Jaina cave temples were smaller than their Buddhist counterparts because Jaina rituals emphasized individual practices rather than congregational gatherings.
• Early relics can be found in sites like the Hathigumpha caves of Kharavela (2nd century B.C.) and the Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves in Orissa. The Jaina relief works and statues at Ellora in Maharashtra exemplify the exceptional architecture and sculpture of this period.
• Among the wonders of the world are the colossal statues of Bahubali (Gomatesvara) located at Sravana Belgola and Karkal in Mysore. The former statue, standing 56.5 feet high and carved from a granite mass, was erected in 982 A.D. by Chamundaraya, a minister of the Ganga ruler Rachamalla.
• One of the earliest Jaina figures is the image of a Tirthankara from Lohanipura (Patna), dating back to the Maurya period. Just like the Buddhists, Jainas also built stupas in honor of their saints, complete with stone railings, decorated gateways, stone umbrellas, intricately carved pillars, and numerous statues.
• Early examples of these stupas have been found in the Kankali mound near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, dating back to the first century B.C. During the Kushana period, Mathura emerged as a significant center of Jaina art.
• The Jaina temples at Ranakpur and the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, both located in Rajasthan, are remarkable products of exceptional Jaina craftsmanship.

Jaina Painting

• In addition to architecture and sculpture, Jainas have made significant contributions to the art of painting in India. The tradition of Jaina painting is as ancient as that of Buddhist painting, with countless Jaina paintings of exquisite quality found on walls, palm leaves, paper, cloth, wood, and other materials.
• It is noteworthy that Jainas possess a vast treasure of manuscript paintings created in the early Western Indian Style, sometimes referred to as the ‘Gujarat Style’ or specifically the ‘Jaina Style.’

The social composition of the Jaina Sangha and Laity

• Jaina texts convey the idea of the Kshatriya varna's superiority over all others. The early medieval Adi Purana attributes the creation of the Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra varnas to the first Tirthankara, Rishabha, who assumed royal powers before achieving Jina-hood.
• According to this text, the Brahmana varna was established by Rishabha's son Bharata, the first Chakravarti ruler. Similar to Buddhist texts, Jaina texts criticize Brahmanas, their sacrifices, lifestyle, and arrogance. However, they also discuss the 'true' or ideal Brahmana, shifting the emphasis from birth to conduct, where only a Jaina monk could be called a Brahmana.
• People from all varnas and social backgrounds could join the Jaina Sangha. Despite this theoretical position, all of Mahavira's chief disciples (ganadharas) were Brahmanas from the Magadha region, who are described as having entered the Sangha with their hundreds of disciples. There was also a notable Brahmana representation among Jaina acharyas, such as Bhadrabahu, Siddhasena Divakara, Pujyapada, Haribhadra, and Jinasena.
• Among the laity, Jainism particularly garnered the allegiance and patronage of the affluent urban merchant class.

Women

• Similar to Buddhist texts, Jaina texts portray women as a threat to the celibacy of monks, urging them to avoid friendship and company with women. However, Jainism did establish a monastic order for women.
• The traditional Jaina account of the Sangha's growth during Mahavira's lifetime emphasizes the role of women. According to the Kalpa Sutra, at the time of Mahavira's death, there were 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns, along with 159,000 laymen and 318,000 laywomen. Notably, 1,400 women, compared to 700 men, are recorded as having achieved salvation during his lifetime.
• Nuns likely played a crucial role in disseminating Jaina teachings among laywomen. The issue of clothing was central to the Jaina debate on gender and salvation. Digambaras stressed the necessity of nudity for members of their order, viewing clothes as possessions associated with passion, sexual desire, and shame. However, they also shared the social disapproval of women being naked in public.
• A woman's body was seen as an obstacle to her attaining salvation. Women mendicants associated with their order, respectfully referred to as aryika or sadhvi (noble or venerable women), were regarded more like celibate laywomen who had made significant spiritual progress.
• In contrast, the Shvetambaras believed that wearing or not wearing clothes was optional, and women could attain moksha in their lifetime. Monks and nuns of this order took the same vows and were theoretically considered equal. However, in practice, there were inequalities similar to those within the Buddhist Sangha.
• No matter how senior a nun or how junior a monk, the nun had to offer respectful salutation first. Nuns could confess their misdemeanors to monks and be censured by them, but the reverse was not allowed.

Was it possible for a woman to become a Tirthankara?

• The Digambara tradition holds that a woman must be reborn as a man before achieving salvation. In contrast, the Shvetambaras acknowledge the possibility of women attaining Jina-hood, with Malli, their 19th Tirthankara, being a woman.
• Both traditions agree that women cannot experience the worst forms of undesirable volitions, and thus cannot be born in the seventh and lowest hell. However, they also consider misdeeds and negative traits such as cheating, greed, unpredictability, and cunning to be responsible for rebirth as a woman.
• Even the Shvetambara tradition regarding Malli attributes her birth as a woman to cheating in a previous birth. Additionally, Malli was never a popular object of worship; only one 9th-century image of her, featuring breasts and a long braid of hair, has been discovered.
• The denial of the possibility of salvation may have discouraged women from associating with a particular order, as suggested by the declining number of Digambara nuns. However, the offer of salvation alone did not guarantee the long-term survival of a women's monastic order, as evidenced by the near disappearance of the Buddhist bhikkhuni Sangha among Theravada communities in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Reasons for the Decline of Jainism

1. Lack of Royal Support: Initially, Jainism received strong support from rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Udayin, and Kharavela. However, later kings and princes did not maintain this level of support. In contrast, emperors like Ashoka, Kanishka, and Harsha vigorously promoted Buddhism, overshadowing Jainism. The absence of committed royal patronage led to the decline of Jainism.
2. Decline in Efforts: There was a decrease in the missionary zeal and dedication of Jain mendicants. They became less active in spreading Jainism in villages and towns. While traders and businessmen remained loyal to Jainism, they lacked the time and energy to promote it.
3. Harshness of Jainism: The rigorous practices of Jainism, such as severe penance, meditation, fasting, and restraint, became off-putting to people. Unlike Buddhism's "middle path," Jainism's strict demands led to disillusionment. Over time, Jainism, once revered, became distanced from the common people.
4. Complex Philosophy: Many aspects of Jain philosophy, including concepts like Jeeva, Ajeeva, Pudgala, and Syadbada, were difficult for the general public to understand. The idea that inanimate objects like stones, water, trees, or earth possess souls was hard for many to accept. This resulted in a gradual decline in popular faith and contributed to Jainism's downfall.
5. Internal Divisions: After Mahavira's death, factionalism within Jainism emerged as a significant factor in its decline. Some factions insisted on strict adherence to Mahavira's teachings, while others advocated for a less rigid interpretation. This division led to the emergence of the 'Digambara' and 'Shvetambara' sects, weakening Jainism's unity and hindering its spread.
6. Rise of Buddhism: Buddhism presented a formidable challenge to Jainism. Its teachings were simpler and more accessible, making it easier for people to adopt. Unlike Jainism, Buddhism did not impose severe restrictions, allowing even householders to follow its path.
7. Influence of Hindu Reformers: Hindu reformers like Nimbarka, Ramanuja, and Sankaracharya strengthened the foundations of Hinduism, making it a more formidable rival to Jainism. The rise of sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism further diminished Jainism's prominence, leading to its inevitable decline.

Contributions of Jainism

1. Development of Language and Literature: Jainism significantly influenced Indian language and literature. Mahavir preached in 'Ardha-Magadhi,' a language accessible to the common people, facilitating the spread of his teachings. Over time, Jaina canonical texts were written in Prakrit, as the early Jainas preferred this language over Sanskrit, which was favored by the Brahmanas. The adoption of Prakrit helped the growth of this language and its literature, contributing to the development of regional languages such as Marathi. Jainas composed important works in Apabhramsha and wrote extensively in Kannada, enriching vernacular and regional languages. Jaina texts like 'Anga,' 'Upanga,' 'Kalpasutra,' and others were also written in Sanskrit, further contributing to literature.
2. Promotion of Non-Violence: Mahavira Jaina, embodying the principle of non-violence, rejected Vedic rituals and advocated kindness and compassion towards all living beings. His teachings on non-violence had a profound impact on Indian history, influencing people and rulers alike.
3. Impact on Politics: Jainism influenced Indian politics by inspiring rulers like Chandragupta Maurya and Kharavela to adopt Jain principles, particularly non-violence. Jainism contributed to the improvement of political and economic life, with Jainas in southern and western India producing many efficient monarchs, ministers, and generals. Jainacharyas, or saints, played a crucial role in shaping political affairs and establishing kingdoms in Karnataka. The political influence of Jainism was notable throughout its history.
4. Fostering of Trading Community: Jainism initially gained popularity among traders and merchants, fostering a sense of brotherhood among them. This laid the groundwork for the future guild system and elevated the status of merchants in society. The cooperation between merchants and the ruling class contributed to societal stability.
5. Creation of a Healthy Society: Jainism's rejection of the caste system contributed to the creation of a healthier society by diminishing the grip of higher castes over lower ones. This shift had a lasting impact on Indian society and history.
6. Promotion of Charitable Institutions: Jainism played a crucial role in the establishment of charitable institutions. Its influence on kings and people led to the creation of caves for sages and the distribution of food and clothing to the needy. Over time, other wealthy individuals followed suit, contributing to social welfare through charitable institutions.
7. Advancement of Art and Architecture: Jainism significantly contributed to the growth of art and architecture in India. Kings patronized Jainism, leading to the creation of numerous Jaina images and Tirthankara sculptures. The cave art of Udayagiri, Ellora, and other sites, along with the Dilwara Jaina temple at Mount Abu, exemplify Jain artistic achievements. Jain temples, often gifts from wealthy individuals, are known for their elaborate details and exquisite craftsmanship. The Jain Tower in Chittor and manuscripts painted with gold dust reflect the architectural and artistic advancements during this period.
8. New Approach to Life: Jainism introduced a new perspective on life by criticizing the Vedic religion and Brahmanism. This shift encouraged people to move away from ritualistic practices, leading to simpler and more normal lifestyles, profoundly influencing society and shaping its future character.