Rise of Magadha Empire and Nandas | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Rise of Magadha in Ancient India

• During ancient times, India was divided into 16 Maha-Janapadas, with Magadha being one of them. Over time, weaker kingdoms either submitted to stronger rulers or were eliminated. By the 6th century BC, only four major kingdoms remained: Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala, and Magadha. Among these, Magadha eventually became the most powerful.
• The rise of Magadha was a significant event in Indian history, marking the first successful attempt at imperial and dynastic unification during the recorded period. This period was characterized by a struggle between centralization and decentralization, with India facing disintegration. Magadha's rise involved aggrandizing weaker states and engaging in a four-power conflict with Avanti, Vatsa, and Kosala, ultimately emerging victorious.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Magadha

Geographical Factors

• Rajgir was surrounded by five hills, providing natural protection.
• Pataliputra, located near the confluence of the Ganges and Son rivers, was easy to defend and control.

Magadha was encircled by the Ganges, Son, and Champa rivers, making it difficult for enemies to invade. The rivers also facilitated military movements and trade. The availability of elephants for warfare was another advantage.

Agricultural Factors (Economic)

• Magadha's economic strength and growing prosperity were key factors in its rise. The region had a vast population that could be employed in agriculture,mining, and military service.
• The fertile lands between the Ganges and Son rivers allowed for multiple crops throughout the year, leading to the prosperity of the people and the government.
• The surplus population could clear forests and reclaim land for farming, further boosting agricultural output.
• Trade and commerce were also supported by the rivers, which facilitated the movement of goods.

Mineral Resources

• Magadha's access to iron and copper mines was a significant source of power and prosperity. With the advent of the Iron Age, iron became essential for making implements,ploughs, and weapons.
• Magadha had abundant iron supplies from Rajgir, allowing it to equip a vast army with iron weapons and sell surplus iron to other states.
• Deep ploughing was made easier by the availability of iron, contributing to agricultural productivity.
• Although Avanti also had iron mines, Magadha's superior resources gave it an edge.

Role of Trade

• Magadha's strategic location on the trade route connecting Eastern India with the West was crucial for its economic growth.
• The river Ganges, flowing through the heart of Magadha, served as a major trade route in Northern India.
• Magadha could control trade through the Ganges, with connections to various parts of Northern India.
• The annexation of Anga kingdom by Bimbisara included the port of Champa, a significant river port for trade with Southeast Asia, Ceylon, and South India.

Significance of the Ganges

• Magadha's rise was closely tied to its control over the Ganges River.
• After annexing Champa, Magadha focused on establishing dominance over the upper Gangetic region.
• Bimbisara and Ajatashatru defeated Kosala and annexed Kasi, a vital river port, expanding Magadha's influence.
• Magadha's control over the Ganges allowed for economic penetration into surrounding regions, including Vaisali and Lichchavi countries.
• The conquest of these regions solidified Magadha's dominance over the Gangetic valley and laid the groundwork for a pan-Indian empire.

Cultural Factors

Political Factors

• Magadha's success in unifying northern India was facilitated by the political fragmentation of the region in the 6th century BC.
• The rivalry among powerful monarchies prevented them from uniting against Magadha, with only the republican states under Vriji forming a coalition against it.
• Geographical barriers like rivers, mountains, and jungles further hindered a unified resistance.
• Magadha benefited from a succession of capable rulers, including Shishunaga,Bimbisara,Ajatashatru,Mahapadma, and Chandragupta, who were supported by talented ministers and diplomats.
• The ambitious rulers of Magadha employed various means to expand their territories and strengthen their states.

Military Organization

• Magadha's military organization gave it an advantage over other states. While horses and chariots were common in Indian warfare, Magadha was the first to use elephants extensively in battles. The eastern part of the country provided elephants, and later records indicate that the Nandas maintained a large number of elephants for military purposes.
• Elephants were used for storming fortresses and traversing difficult terrain. Ajatashatru is also credited with using advanced war engines and chariots in warfare.

Danger of Foreign Invasions

• The threat of foreign invasions, such as those by the Achaemenians in the 6th century BC and the Macedonians in the 4th century BC, highlighted the need for a strong central government to defend the subcontinent. 
• This awareness contributed to the rise of Magadhan imperialism and the acceptance of its dominance.

Magadha Dynasties

Haryanka Dynasty (c. 600 – 413 BC)

The Haryanka dynasty is believed to have established the Magadha Empire around 600 BC, with its capital at Rajagriha, later known as Pataliputra, near present-day Patna. This dynasty ruled until 424 BC when it was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty.

Bimbisara (543–491 BC)

• Bimbisara was a King and later an Emperor of the Magadha Empire.
• He is known for expanding the kingdom, particularly by annexing the kingdom of Anga, which set the stage for the later expansion of the Maurya Empire.
• Bimbisara founded the city of Rajagriha, which is significant in Buddhist writings.
• According to Buddhist texts, he met the Buddha before the latter's enlightenment and later became an important disciple, achieving a degree of enlightenment known as sotapannahood.
• In Jain scriptures, Bimbisara is depicted as a disciple of Mahavira, and is referred to as King Shrenika of Rajgriha.
• He is noted for sending Jivaka, a physician, to treat King Pradyota of Avanti.

Marriage Alliances

• Bimbisara strengthened his position through marriage alliances. His first wife was Kosala Devi, the sister of Prasenjit, king of Kosala. This marriage brought Kashi as dowry, which was beneficial for trade and ended hostilities between Magadha and Kosala.
• His second wife,Chellana, was a Lichchhavi princess from Vaishali, related to Mahavira.
• His third wife,Kshema, was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.
• Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son Ajatashatru to ascend the throne.

Ajatashatru (491–460 BC)

• According to Jaina tradition, Ajatashatru was the son of King Bimbisara and Queen Chelna; Buddhist tradition also records him as the son of Bimbisara and Queen Kosala Devi.
• Ajatashatru, with the help of ministers Sunidha and Vassakara, built a fort near the Ganges River, later becoming Pataliputra.
• He reorganized and modernized his army, introducing new weapons and tactics.
• Ajatashatru expanded Magadha through conquest and expansion.

War with Vaishali and Kosala

• He fought against the Vajjis/Lichhavis of Vaishali, who were considered invincible.
• Ajatashatru split the Vajjis and defeated them, aided by his minister Vassakara.
• He also conquered Vaishali,Kashi,Kosala, and 36 republican states surrounding Magadha.
• He was unable to conquer Pradyota of Avanti.

Religion

• Ajatashatru was contemporary to Mahavira and Buddha, and is respected in both traditions.
• The First Buddhist Council was held under his patronage after Buddha's death to preserve his teachings.
• According to texts, the four kings after Ajatashatru killed their fathers.

Udayabhadra/Udayin (460-444 BC)

• Udayabhadra succeeded his father Ajatashatru and moved the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.

Nagadasaka

• Nagadasaka was the last king of the Haryanka dynasty.

Shishunaga Dynasty

• The Shishunaga dynasty was founded by Shishunaga, who was initially a minister under the last Haryanka dynasty ruler, Nagadasaka.
• Shishunaga ascended to the throne after a popular rebellion in 413 BCE. He temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
• The Shishunaga dynasty is known for ending the long-standing rivalry with Avanti by defeating it.
• Kalashoka Kakavara, the successor of Shishunaga, played a significant role in the dynasty's history.
• Kalashoka is noted for organizing the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali in 383 BC and for transferring the capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra.
• The last ruler of the Shishunaga dynasty was Nandivardhana or Mahanandin, who was probably the last ruler before the rise of the Nanda dynasty.
• The Shishunaga dynasty was succeeded by the Nanda dynasty around 345 BCE.

Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BCE)

• The Nanda dynasty, which overthrew the Shishunaga dynasty, was thought to have low origins. Some sources suggest that Mahapadma Nanda, the dynasty's founder, was the son of a Shudra mother.
• Mahapadma Nanda, the first Nanda king, was described in the Puranas as the destroyer of all Kshatriyas. He defeated various kingdoms, including the Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, and Surasenas.
• Mahapadma Nanda was known as Ekrat, the sole king who destroyed others. He conquered Kalinga and brought back the image of Jina.
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela mentions Nanda's conquest of Kalinga.
• The Nandas expanded their territory south of the Vindhya range and into the Deccan plateau. They are sometimes considered the first empire builders in recorded Indian history.
• The Nandas built a vast army, as described by ancient historians. The army consisted of 200,000 infantry,20,000 cavalry,2,000 war chariots, and 3,000 war elephants.
• The Nandas were renowned for their immense wealth and undertook irrigation projects. They invented standardized measures for trade across their empire and ruled with the assistance of many ministers.
• The Nanda dynasty was also mentioned in ancient Sangam literature of the Tamil people. The Tamil poet Mamulanar described the wealth and treasure accumulated by the great Nanda rulers.
• The last king of the Nanda dynasty was Dhana Nanda(329 BCE – 321 BC). The Nandas were overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya due to their unpopularity, possibly because of financial extortion.
• Despite their downfall, the achievements of the Nandas laid the groundwork for the greatness attained in the Maurya Age.

Growth under Bimbisara

• Bimbisara, a contemporary of the Buddha, is credited with laying the groundwork for Magadhan imperialism. He initiated a policy of conquest and aggression that continued until the Kalinga War of Ashoka.
• Bimbisara pursued a three-pronged strategy for expansion:
• Matrimonial alliances, such as his marriage to the sister of Prasenjit, the king of Kosala, which brought the territory of Kashi into Magadhan control.
• Friendship with powerful rulers, like Avanti.
• Conquest of weaker neighbors, exemplified by the defeat of Anga.
• Under the policy of matrimonial alliances, Bimbisara married the sister of Prasenjit, the king of Kosala. This marriage brought the territory of Kashi as dowry, which generated a revenue of 1,00,000 coins. The control over Kashi and the friendship with Prasenjit allowed Magadha to focus on expanding into other areas.
• Bimbisara's other wives were the daughters of chiefs from Lichchavi and Madra(in present-day Punjab). These marriage alliances with different princely families not only enhanced Magadha's prestige but also facilitated its expansion westward and northward.
• He also conquered Anga by defeating its ruler Brahmadatta. Anga was placed under the viceroyalty of Bimbisara's son Ajatashatru and its capital Champa became significant for inland and maritime trade. Thus, the control over Kashi and the conquest of Anga laid the foundation for the expansion of Magadha.
• Magadha’s most formidable rival was Avanti, with its capital at Ujjain. The king of Avanti,Chanda Pradyota Mahasena, initially fought against Bimbisara but eventually they reconciled. When Pradyota fell ill, Bimbisara sent the royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain at Pradyota's request. Bimbisara also received an embassy and a letter from the ruler of Gandhara, with whom Pradyota had previously fought.
• Through a combination of conquest and diplomacy, Bimbisara established Magadha as the dominant state in the sixth century BCE.

Growth under Ajatasatru
Expansion Policy: Ajatasatru adopted a bold and aggressive approach to territorial expansion. He did not hesitate to challenge even those with whom he had familial ties.

• His first major conflict was with his maternal uncle,Prasenajit, who was upset over the treatment of Bimbisara and demanded the return of Kasi, a territory given to Ajatasatru's mother as dowry.
• When Ajatasatru refused, a fierce battle ensued, ultimately leading to Prasenajit agreeing to leave Kasi under Magadh's control.

Conflict with Vaishali: Ajatasatru also faced off against his maternal grandfather, Chetak, the chief of Vaishali. After 16 years of conflict, Ajatasatru managed to weaken Vaishali's power.

• He justified his actions by claiming that the Lichchhavis were allies of Koshala, sowing discord among the Lichchhavis and eventually conquering their territory.
• Through these military campaigns, Ajatasatru not only retained Kasi but also expanded Magadh's territory to include Vaishali.

Threat from Avanti: Ajatasatru faced a significant threat from the ruler of Avanti, who had defeated the vatsas of Kaushambi and was poised to invade Magadha.

• To counter this threat, Ajatasatru began fortifying Rajgir, with remnants of the walls still visible today.
• Despite these preparations, the invasion from Avanti did not occur during his reign.

Succession by Udayin: Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin(460-44 BC), who made significant contributions to the expansion and fortification of Pataliputra (modern-day Patna).

• Udayin built a fort at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers, a location that was strategically important for its central position and facilitation of trade and military movement.
• This development laid the groundwork for Pataliputra to become a major hub in Magadha's history.

Growth under Shishunaga dynasty

• Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Shishunaga.
• The most important achievement of Shishunaga was to defeat Avanti (Malwa) and make it a part of Magadh.

Growth under Nanda dynasty

• Nandas proved to be the most powerful rulers of the time.
• Mahapadma Nanda was its most important ruler. He possessed a large army and added Kalinga to his empire.

Growth under Mauryan dynasty

• The Mauryan dynasty established a vast empire built on the foundations laid by the Nandas.

Chandragupta Maurya

• Many historians emphasize the significant role Chandragupta Maurya played in stopping foreign interference in the northwest and suppressing local rulers in the west and south of India.
• Both Indian and classical sources agree that Chandragupta overthrew the last Nanda king, took over his capital Pataliputra, and became king around 321 B.C.
• Chandragupta's rise was also linked to Alexander's invasion of the northwest.
• Between 325 B.C. and 323 B.C., many governors left by Alexander were either killed or had to leave. After Alexander's retreat, this created a vacuum, making it easier for Chandragupta to defeat the Greek garrisons left there.
• It is unclear whether he did this before or after becoming the king of Magadha. He might have first established himself in the Punjab and then moved east to gain control over Magadha.
• Regardless, both tasks were completed by 321 B.C., setting the stage for further consolidation.

Military Achievements

• One of Chandragupta's early military achievements was his conflict with Seleucus Nicator, who ruled the area west of the Indus around 305 B.C..
• Chandragupta was victorious in the war, leading to a peace treaty.
• In return for 500 elephants, Seleucus ceded eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the area west of the Indus to Chandragupta.
• A marriage alliance was also established, and Seleucus sent an ambassador, Megasthenes, to live at Chandragupta's court for many years.
• This achievement solidified the territorial foundation of the Mauryan Empire, with the Indus and Gangetic plains under Chandragupta's control.
• Scholars suggest that Chandragupta established control not only in the northwest and the Ganges plains but also in western India and the Deccan.
• The only areas not included in his empire were present-day Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of northeastern India.

Conquests and Governance

• The conquest of Saurashtra or Kathiawar in the extreme west is documented in the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman from the second century A.D.
• This record mentions Chandragupta's governor, Pushyagupta, who built the famous Sudarshana Lake, indicating Chandragupta's control over the Malwa region as well.
• Details about his conquests in various parts of India are scarce. Greek writers only state that Chandragupta conquered the entire country with an army of 600,000.
• Regarding his control over the Deccan, late sources, including medieval inscriptions, suggest that Chandragupta protected parts of Karnataka.
• Early Tamil texts from the Sangam period reference the "Moriyar," believed to refer to the Mauryas and their interactions with the south, likely during Chandragupta's successor's reign.

Bindusara

• Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta Maurya around 297 B.C.. Not much is known about him from Indian or classical sources.
• In a late sixteenth-century source by the Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranath, Bindusara is described as a warlike ruler who defeated kings and nobles from about sixteen cities and subdued all territory between the eastern and western seas.
• Early Tamil poets' descriptions of Mauryan chariots thundering across the land likely refer to Bindusara's reign.
• Many scholars believe that since Asoka is credited only with conquering Kalinga, the expansion of the Mauryan Empire beyond the Tungabhadra River was likely due to Bindusara.
• It is suggested that during Bindusara's reign, Mauryan control over the Deccan and the Mysore plateau was firmly established.
• Bindusara, known as the "slayer of foes," has less documented evidence, so the extent of his conquests is inferred from Asoka's map of the empire.
• Asoka conquered only Kalinga, so the territories beyond Kalinga were likely under Bindusara's control.
• After Bindusara's death around 273-272 B.C., there was a struggle for succession among his sons for about four years. Ultimately, around 269-268 B.C., Ashoka was crowned Bindusara's successor.

Ashoka

• During his father’s reign,Ashoka served as a Viceroy at Ujjain and Taxila, and he was sent to Taxila to suppress a rebellion.
• Ashoka fought a significant war with Kalinga around 261 B.C., resulting in numerous deaths and imprisonments. In Rock Edict XIII, Ashoka describes the conquest of Kalinga, which occurred eight years after his consecration.
• Despite his victory on the battlefield, Ashoka felt profound remorse, leading him to embrace Dhamma. He shifted from a policy of conquest through war to one of conquest through Dhamma, prioritizing the drum of Dhamma over the war drum.
• This transformation was intended to apply at both the State and personal levels, fundamentally changing the king's and his officials' attitudes toward their subjects.
• Historian Romila Thapar argues that Dhamma was a tool used by Ashoka to unify and strengthen his expansive empire, promoting political integration through social harmony and the integration of various sects.