Mahmud of Ghazni (Mahmud Ghaznavi) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Mahmud of Ghazni:

Mahmud of Ghazni, also known as Mahmud Ghaznavi, was the ruler and Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire from 998 to 1030 CE.

The Ghaznavid Dynasty:

• The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim Turkish dynasty of Mameluk origin.
• It ruled over large parts of Iran, Afghanistan, Transoxiana, and the North-West Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186 CE.

Foundation of the Dynasty:

• The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin, who became the ruler of Ghazni after the death of his father-in-law, Alptigin.
• Alptigin was an ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh, North of the Hindu Kush in Greater Khorasan.

Persianization:

• Despite being Central Asian Turkish in origin, the Ghaznavid dynasty became thoroughly Persianized in terms of language, culture, literature, and administrative practices.
• This transformation led to the dynasty being considered a Persian dynasty.

Expansion of the Empire:

• At the time of his death, Mahmud of Ghazni had expanded his kingdom into a vast military empire.
• The empire extended from northwestern Iran to the Punjab in the Indian subcontinent, Khwarazm in Transoxiana, and Makran.

Ghaznavid Dynasty

The Yamini Dynasty (Ghaznavid Dynasty):

• Origin: The Yamini dynasty, also known as the Ghaznavid dynasty, claimed descent from Persian rulers. During the Arab invasion, the family fled to Turkistan and integrated with the Turks, leading to their acceptance as Turks.
• Foundation: Founded by Alptigin, a Turkish slave of the Samanid ruler Abdul Malik of Bukhara, the dynasty gained independence when Alptigin captured the kingdom of Jabul, with its capital at Ghazni, in 963 CE. He died the same year.
• Succession: Alptigin was succeeded by his son Ishaq, who ruled briefly before Balkatigin, the commander of the Turkish troops, took over. Balkatigin was succeeded by his slave,Pirai, in 972 CE.
• Pirai’s Rule: Pirai was a cruel ruler, prompting his subjects to invite Abu Ali Lawik, son of Abu Bakr Lawik, to invade Ghazni. The Hindushahi ruler Jaipala also supported this invasion.
• Sabuktigin’s Rise: Sabuktigin, Alptigin’s son-in-law, defeated the invading forces and eventually dethroned Pirai, establishing the Ghaznavid Dynasty in 977 CE.
• Conquests: Sabuktigin expanded his territory by conquering Bust,Dawar,Ghur, and parts of the Hindushahi kingdom in eastern Afghanistan and Punjab, leading to conflicts with Jaipala.
• Jaipala’s Resistance: Jaipala attempted to curb Sabuktigin’s power by attacking Ghazni twice, supported by other Rajput rulers. However, both attempts failed, and Sabuktigin captured territories between Lamghan and Peshawar.
• Legacy of Conflict: The struggle between Ghazni and the Hindushahi kingdom highlighted Jaipala’s awareness of the threat posed by the rising Muslim power, a sentiment shared by some Rajput rulers.
• Sabuktigin’s Death and Succession: Sabuktigin died in 997 CE, designating his son Ismail as his successor. However, Ismail was overthrown by his elder brother Abdul Qasim Mahmud in 998 CE.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi: Mahmud, born on November 1, 971 CE, consolidated his power and gained recognition from the Caliph of Baghdad. He became the first Muslim ruler to be titled Sultan and committed to yearly invasions of India.

Causes of the Invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi

Mahmud's Invasions of India: Motives and Perspectives:

• Mahmud's Expeditions: Between 1000 CE and 1027 CE, Mahmud led 17 invasions into India.
• Desire to Establish Islamic Glory: Historians suggest Mahmud aimed to promote Islam's prestige in India.
• Professor Muhammad Habib's View: Habib argues that Mahmud lacked religious fervor and was not a fanatic. He believes Mahmud's actions harmed Islam's image rather than enhancing it.

Support for Economic Motive:

• Jafar: Jafar suggests Mahmud targeted Hindu temples not out of religious zeal but to acquire their wealth.
• Nazim: Nazim points out that Mahmud looted not only Hindu kings but also Muslim rulers in Central Asia.
• Prof. Havell: Havell argues that Mahmud would have looted Baghdad like he did Indian cities if wealth could be gained.
• Utbi's Perspective: Utbi, Mahmud's court historian, described the invasions as Jihads aimed at spreading Islam and destroying idolatry.

Propagating Islam and Economic Gain:

• It is widely accepted that Mahmud aimed to propagate Islam and gain wealth. He attacked Hindu temples to loot their riches and establish Islamic glory.
• Mahmud needed wealth to raise an army for expanding his Central Asian empire and was drawn to India's riches.
• Political Objectives: Mahmud aimed to weaken the Hindushahi kingdom, which had been aggressive towards the Ghaznavids. His success against the Hindushahis encouraged deeper incursions into India.
• Desire for Fame: Like other rulers of his time, Mahmud sought fame through conquests. His attacks on Hindu temples served both wealth acquisition and fame as an idol breaker.

Conditions of India at the Time of Invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi

Political Fragmentation and Internal Conflicts:

• India was divided into numerous states and kingdoms that were often at war with each other, which weakened their ability to unite against external threats like Mahmud.
• Despite being extensive and powerful, these kingdoms could not fully utilize their resources or unite due to internal conflicts.

Muslim States and Regional Kingdoms:

• Multan and Sindh were the two main Muslim states in India.
• In the North-West, the Hindushahi kingdom, ruled by Jaipala, was notable.
• Kashmir was an independent state with ties to the Hindushahis.
• The Pratiharas ruled over Kannauj, with Rajyapala as the ruler.
• Mahipala I ruled over Bengal, although his kingdom was weak.
• There were independent kingdoms in Gujarat,Malwa, and Bundelkhand. In the South, the Chalukyas and the Cholas had powerful kingdoms.

Social Division and Rigid Caste System:

• The four-fold division of Hindu society created sharp divisions and weakened social cohesion.
• A large section of people engaged in professions like hunting, weaving, fishing, and shoemaking, known as Antyaja, were ranked lower than the Sudras. Even Vaisyas were not allowed to study religious texts, and the caste system became increasingly rigid.
• People like Hadis, Doms, and Chandalas, who performed cleanliness tasks, were considered out-castes and untouchables, forced to live outside cities and villages.

Deterioration of Women’s Status:

• The position of women declined significantly, viewed merely as objects of pleasure for men.
• Practices like child marriages,polygamy among males, and Sati among higher-caste women became widespread, while widow remarriage was prohibited.

Corruption in Religion and Morality:

• Both Hinduism and Buddhism faced ignorance and corruption, with the rich and upper classes engaging in corrupt practices.
• Temples and Buddhist monasteries became centers of corruption, and practices like keeping Devadasis in temples contributed to this decline.
• Corruption in social and religious institutions reflected the broader societal corruption, weakening the country’s ability to resist invaders.

Decline in Culture and Art:

• Culture, literature, and fine arts suffered, with temples like Puri and Khajuraho and works like Kutini-Matama reflecting the deteriorated taste of the people.

Weak Military and Defensive Strategies:

• Hindus relied heavily on elephants, with swords as the principal weapon, and maintained a defensive policy.
• They neglected to build forts in the North-West or adopt other means to defend their frontiers.

Economic Strength Amid Political Weakness:

• Despite political, social, and military weaknesses, India’s agriculture,industries, and trade were in good condition, with wealth concentrated in the hands of upper classes and temples.
• This wealth made India a tempting target for foreign invaders like Mahmud.

Al Beruni’s Observations:

• Al Beruni noted the Indians’ false pride and lack of progress, highlighting their belief in the superiority of their own country, nation, king, religion, and science.
• He pointed out their reluctance to purify and recover polluted things, reflecting a narrow vision and a lack of desire to learn from others.

Invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi on India

Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasions of India:

• Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded India multiple times, with historians agreeing on at least twelve expeditions.
• His first invasion was in 1000 CE, followed by significant attacks in 1001 CE against King Jaipala of the Hindushahi dynasty.
• After defeating Jaipala, Mahmud extracted a large ransom and returned to Ghazni.
• Jaipala's successor, Anandapala, continued to resist Mahmud's advances.
• Mahmud captured key territories such as Multan and Siestan, establishing his rule over parts of India.
• He faced resistance from Anandapala and other Hindu states but gradually expanded his control.
• Mahmud’s invasions included the plunder of significant cities like Mathura and Kannauj, where he destroyed temples and took vast riches.
• He is notably remembered for his attack on the Somnath temple, aiming for both wealth and fame.
• Despite facing local resistance, Mahmud successfully looted and annexed large parts of India, including Punjab, Sindh, and Multan, into his empire.
• His campaigns were marked by both destruction and significant plunder, contributing to his legacy as a formidable conqueror.

Estimate of Mahmud’s Character and Achievements

Mahmud of Ghazni:

• Mahmud was a remarkable conqueror, a brave soldier, and a skilled commander. He is considered one of the greatest military generals in history.
• He had strong leadership qualities and effectively utilized his resources and circumstances. He was also a good judge of human nature, assigning tasks based on individuals' capabilities.
• His army was diverse, including Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and even Hindus, but under his command, it became a unified and powerful force. Mahmud was ambitious and sought to expand his empire and gain glory.
• He inherited only the provinces of Ghazni and Khurasan from his father but transformed this small inheritance into a vast empire stretching from Iraq and the Caspian Sea in the West to the river Ganges in the East, surpassing the empire of the Caliph of Baghdad.
• Mahmud achieved success not only against weak and divided Hindu rulers but also against enemies in Iran and Central Asia, earning his place among the greatest commanders and empire-builders in Asia.
• Despite his military prowess, Mahmud was not a barbarian at home. He was educated, cultured, and a patron of scholarship and fine arts. He gathered renowned scholars at his court, including Al Beruni, Utbi, Farabi, Baihaki, and Firdausi, among others.
• He established a university, a library, and a museum in Ghazni, along with beautiful gardens and parks. Mahmud also commissioned artists from various parts of his empire to beautify Ghazni, constructing palaces, mosques, tombs, and other impressive buildings.
• Under his rule, Ghazni became a center of Islamic scholarship, fine arts, and culture. Mahmud was a just ruler, demonstrating a strong sense of justice by punishing those who wronged others, including his own relatives.
• He maintained peace and order, protected trade and agriculture, and safeguarded the honor and property of his subjects. However, he was known for his intolerance, particularly towards Shia Muslims and Hindus.
• Historians like Muhammad Habib have tried to exonerate him from charges of bigotry, but contemporary accounts criticized his religious zeal. He was celebrated as a champion of Islam and earned titles like Ghazi (slayer of infidels) and idol breaker.
• Mahmud's destruction of Hindu idols and temples was partly driven by economic motives, but his religious fervor also played a significant role. He was known for his extravagant spending, such as rewarding his court poet Firdausi with gold coins for his verses.
• Despite his military achievements, Mahmud was not a great statesman or administrator. He failed to establish a stable administrative system, and his empire fragmented after his death.
• While he brought peace and order, he did little to consolidate his conquests in India and showed little interest in public welfare or nation-building. His reign was marked by autocracy and a lack of institutions.
• Mahmud is remembered as a great Muslim ruler and a significant figure in Islamic history, but to many Indians of his time, he was seen as a barbaric foreign invader and destroyer of fine arts.

Impact of Mahmud’s Invasion on India

Scholars' Views on Mahmud's Invasions:

• Some scholars believe that Mahmud's invasions did not leave a lasting impact on India. They argue that he came like a storm, causing destruction, but then quickly left.
• According to this view, the Indians soon forgot his raids and atrocities, rebuilding their temples, idols, and cities.

Mahmud's Impact on Indian Morale and Defense:

• Despite the initial recovery, Mahmud significantly shook the economic and military strength of the Indians, as well as their morale to resist future Muslim invaders.
• The Hindushahis, who were the defenders of Panjab and the North-Western frontier, were defeated. This loss, along with the capture of the Khyber Pass, a crucial gateway to India, marked a point of no return.
• Mahmud's invasions exposed the political division and disunity within India, weakening the overall resistance.

Fear and Pessimism Among Indians:

• Mahmud faced little serious opposition in India, and his continuous success against Indian forces instilled a sense of fear and pessimism among the people, leading them to believe that the Turks were invincible.
• This fear had a long-lasting effect on the Indian psyche and made future invasions easier for subsequent Turkic rulers.

Facilitating Future Invasions:

• The inclusion of Panjab,Multan, and Sindh into the Ghaznavid Empire under Mahmud laid the groundwork for later Turkic invaders.
• Muhammad of Ghur capitalized on this by entering India to reclaim these territories from the Ghaznavid ruler, setting the stage for broader Turkic conquest.

Dr. D.C. Ganguly's Perspective:

• Dr. D.C. Ganguly argues that the incorporation of Panjab and Afghanistan into the Ghaznavid kingdom made the Islamic conquest of India a foregone conclusion.
• He emphasized that it was no longer a matter of whether India would be conquered, but when.

Consequences for Indian Civilization:

• Indian civilization was profoundly wounded and left in a state of turmoil.
• The period was marked by a dreadful holocaust, indicating the severe impact of these invasions on the Indian populace and culture.

How did the Ghaznavids in Central Asia and India fall, and the Ghurids rise?

Weakness of Mahmud and Rise of the Ghurids:

• Although Mahmud plundered immense wealth from India, he failed to become a capable ruler. He did not establish any lasting institutions and ruled tyrannically outside Ghazni.
• In the 12th century, the unexpected rise of the Ghurids from a small and isolated province of Ghur, situated between the Ghaznavid and Seljuqid empires, was notable.
• Ghur was one of the least developed regions of present-day Afghanistan, located west of Ghazni and east of Herat, in the fertile valley of the Herat/Hari River.
• The hilly terrain of Ghur was primarily suited for cattle-rearing and agriculture. The region was “Islamicized” by the Ghaznavids in the late 10th and early 11th centuries.
• The Ghurid rulers, known as the Shansabanids, were humble pastoral chieftains. In the mid-12th century, they sought to assert their dominance by intervening in Herat during a rebellion against the Seljuqid king Sanjar.
• Feeling threatened, the Ghaznavids retaliated by capturing and poisoning the brother of Ghurid emperor Alauddin Hussain Shah.
• Alauddin then defeated the Ghaznavid ruler Bahram Shah and captured Ghazni. The city was plundered and destroyed, earning Alauddin the title Jahan Soz or “world burner.”
• This event marked the fall of the Ghaznavids and the rise of the Ghurids.