Muhammad Ghori (Muhammad of Ghor) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

After the death of Mahmud Ghaznavi, the Ghaznavid Empire quickly fell apart under his weak successors. The Seljuk Turks took away their Central Asian territories, while within Afghanistan, they faced a major challenge from the Ghorids (or Ghuris).

There was a prolonged struggle between the ruling families of Ghazni and Ghur for control over Afghanistan. Eventually, the Ghurids seized Ghazni from the weakened Ghaznavids.

Ghurid Dynasty

Ghur's Historical Background and the Rise of the Ghur Dynasty:

• Ghur, located at a high altitude between Ghazni and Herat, was historically described by some as Afghan territory, but recent views recognize its Turkic origins.
• The ruling family of Ghur, known as Shansbani, was of Turkic descent from Persia.
• Initially primarily agricultural, Ghur was renowned in Central Asia for its strong horses and steel, crucial for warfare.
• Ghur remained independent until conquered by Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1009 CE.
• As the Ghaznavid power waned, Ghur's rulers, starting in the early 12th century, asserted independence and challenged Ghaznavid dominance.

Conflict and Conquest: The Struggle for Afghanistan:

• A prolonged struggle ensued between the Ghaznavids and the rulers of Ghur.
• Ala-ud-din Husain of Ghur played a pivotal role in this conflict, earning the nickname Jahan Soz, or "the world burner," for his brutal attacks on Ghazni.
• Husain's destruction of Ghazni significantly weakened the Ghaznavid power and prestige.
• After Ala-ud-din, his son Saif-ud-din and cousin Ghiyas-ud-din continued the struggle.
• Ghiyas-ud-din sent his brother Shihab-ud-din Muhammad to conquer Ghazni, which he successfully did in 1173-74 CE.

Shihab-ud-din Muhammad and the Expansion of the Ghurid Empire:

• After conquering Ghazni, Muhammad was appointed governor and given the freedom to expand his dominion.
• This Muhammad would later become known as Muhammad Ghori, famous for his invasions of India in the 12th century and establishing a powerful empire there.
• While his brother focused on expanding westward and clashing with the Khwarizm Shah of Persia, Muhammad Ghori aimed eastward.
• Although Ghori became an independent ruler, he maintained loyalty to his elder brother during his lifetime, honoring him in coins and religious proclamations.

The Causes of the Invasions of Muhammad Ghori on India

Reasons Behind Muhammad Ghori's Conquest of India:

• Expansion of Power and Glory: Muhammad Ghori, like many great rulers of his time, was ambitious and sought to expand his empire for greater power and glory. Conquering India was part of this grand vision.
• Hereditary Rivalry: The royal families of Ghur and Ghazni were traditional enemies. After capturing Ghazni, Ghori aimed to annex Punjab to weaken the Ghaznavids, his hereditary rivals, and secure his eastern frontier.
• Strategic Shift Due to Persian Threat: The Ghur dynasty faced challenges from the rising Khwarizm dynasty in Persia. With the responsibility of expanding Ghur power in the West on Ghiyas-ud-din, Muhammad Ghori shifted his focus eastward to India.
• Military Funding: While loot and plunder were not Ghori's primary goals, acquiring gold and silver from defeated foes helped him raise a strong army to defend his Afghan territories against the Khwarizm Shahs.

Condition of India at the Time of Invasions of Muhammad Ghori

The Political State of India Before Muhammad Ghori's Invasion:

• After 148 years since Mahmud Ghaznavi's invasion in 1027 CE, there was little change in India when Muhammad Ghori attacked in 1175 CE.
• India was politically divided into many kingdoms in the North and South.Despite their size and power, these kingdoms were weakened by constant fighting among themselves, preventing them from uniting against foreign invaders.
• Sindh and Multan were ruled by independent Shia Muslim rulers.
• Punjab was under Khusrav Shah, the last Ghaznavid ruler, who was weak and unsuccessful.
• Gujarat and Kathiawar were ruled by the Chalukyas, with Mularaja II as their leader, but they had lost power to the Chauhanas.
• Delhi and Ajmer were ruled by the Chauhanas, with Prithviraja III as a capable but shortsighted ruler who failed to secure allies against Ghori.
• The Gahadavalas, under Jayachandra, ruled over Kannauj, the most extensive empire in North India.
• The Chandelas ruled in Bundelkhand, while the Palas and Senas ruled in Bengal.
• The South was politically divided and indifferent to North India's fate.
• Socially, there was little change since the 11th century, except for the peaceful settlement of Muslim colonies in various parts of India, which could provide some sympathy and information to Muslim invaders.
• Overall, India had not changed significantly socially, culturally, or militarily since the time of Mahmud Ghaznavi's invasions.

Invasions of Muhammad Ghori on India

Novelty in Muhammad Ghori's Expeditions:

• Muhammad Ghori's approach to invading India differed from Mahmud Ghaznavi's. Instead of using the Khyber Pass, he opted for the Gomal Pass, considering it a safer and shorter route.
• This choice was likely due to the Khyber Pass being well-defended by the Ghaznavid rulers of Lahore and Ghori's intention to avoid a direct confrontation with the Ghaznavids.

Conquests in the Indian Subcontinent:

• In 1175 CE, Muhammad Ghori attacked Multan and easily conquered it from the Karmatia ruler.
• He then annexed Uch and lower Sindh, establishing effective military control and a civil administration.
• In 1178 CE, Ghori attacked Gujarat, facing defeat at the hands of Chalukya ruler Mularaja II near Mount Abu. This marked Ghori's first defeat in India.
• Following this, he focused on conquering Punjab from the Ghaznavids.

Expansion in the Punjab Region:

• In 1179 CE, Ghori occupied Peshawar and later attacked Lahore.
• He received gifts from Khusrav Shah, the last Ghaznavid ruler, and conquered Sialkot in 1185 CE.
• Ghori attacked Lahore again in 1186 CE, imprisoning Khusrav Shah and taking control of the entire Punjab region.
• Khusrav Shah was murdered in 1192 CE.

Conflict with Prithviraja III:

• The boundaries of Muhammad Ghori's kingdom and that of Prithviraja III, the Chauhana ruler of Delhi and Ajmer, met after Ghori's conquest of Punjab.
• In 1189 CE, Ghori attacked and captured Bhatinda but faced the advance of Prithviraja Chauhan, leading to the first battle of Tarain.

First Battle of Tarain:

• There is controversy regarding the location of the site of the battle. A.B.M Habibullah agrees with Alexander Cunningham's identification of the place with a village called Torvan, situated between Bhatinda and Sirsa.
• According to Firishta Tarain was also known as Taraori; accordingly Elphinstone located it between Karnal and Thanesar.
• Tarain was 80 miles from Delhi, and the first battle of Tarain took place in 1190-91 CE. Muhammad Ghori suffered a crushing defeat in this battle.
• The Hammir-Mahakavya describes that Muhammad Ghori was taken prisoner by Prithviraja Chauhan but left free with grace. But this view is not accepted by historians.
• Prithviraja, thereafter, attacked the fort of Bhatinda but could capture it only after 13 months. It is a sad commentary on the poor military organization and defective war strategy of the Rajputs that they took a very long time to recapture their own fort from the hands of the Turks who had conquered it from the former in a single sweep a short-while ago.

Preparation for Revenge:

• After the defeat at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori was determined to avenge his humiliation. He gathered a strong force of 120,000 men and prepared for another campaign against Prithviraja Chauhan.
• In 1192 CE, Ghori returned to Tarain, where he decisively defeated Prithviraja III.
• Prithviraja was captured, and according to Professor Hasan Nizami, he accepted Ghori's overlordship but was later executed for conspiring against him.

Significance of the Second Battle of Tarain:

• The second battle of Tarain in 1192 CE was a decisive moment in Indian history. It not only marked the end of the Chauhana imperial power but also paved the way for Muslim conquests in India.
• Prithviraja's defeat weakened the resistance of other Rajput rulers against the Muslim invaders.
• After the battle, Muhammad Ghori captured Ajmer and Delhi, establishing a strong foothold in northern India.

Consolidation of Conquests:

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a slave general of Ghori, was tasked with consolidating the Indian conquests.
• Aibak suppressed revolts, made Delhi the capital of the Muslim kingdom in India, and expanded the territory further.
• In 1194 CE, Aibak captured Baran and Koil, continuing the expansion of Ghori's empire.

Expansion into Bengal and Bihar:

• Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, a noble under Ghori, expanded into Bengal and Bihar.
• Khalji plundered Buddhist monasteries and conquered Nadia, establishing Turkish control over large parts of Bengal.

Final Years of Muhammad Ghori:

• While his nobles expanded and consolidated the empire in India, Muhammad Ghori was engaged in battles against the Khwarizm Shah of Persia. He suffered a significant defeat in 1205 CE, which led to revolts in India.
• Ghori returned to India to suppress the revolts and was ultimately stabbed to death on March 15, 1206 CE, at Dhamyak by a group of Khokhar dare-devils.
• His body was carried to Ghazni and buried there, marking the end of his significant role in the establishment of Muslim rule in India.

Character Estimate of Muhammad Ghori

Comparison of Muhammad Ghori and Mahmud Ghaznavi:

• While assessing Muhammad Ghori's character and achievements, comparisons with Mahmud Ghaznavi are common but can sometimes undermine Ghori's significance.
• Despite such comparisons, Muhammad Ghori's role in Indian history remains undeniable.

Military Leadership:

• As a military leader, Muhammad Ghori was not on par with Mahmud Ghaznavi.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi was a natural military commander, successful in all his campaigns in India and Central Asia.
• He established a vast and powerful empire, earning the title of the first Sultan of the Islamic world and remaining unbeaten during his lifetime.

Overcoming Defeats:

• Muhammad Ghori faced significant defeats at the hands of Mularaja, Prithviraja Chauhan, and Khwarizm Shah.
• However, his greatness lay in his ability to learn from failures, adapt, and ultimately achieve success.
• He did not inspire fear but rather confidence among his generals, valuing their input and giving credit for their achievements.

Long-Term Impact:

• The successes and conquests of Muhammad Ghori had more lasting effects than those of Mahmud Ghaznavi.
• Professor K.A. Nizami notes that despite his defeats, Ghori established one of the greatest empires of the Middle Ages, surpassing Mahmud of Ghazni in this regard.

Vision for India:

• Muhammad Ghori accurately assessed the declining political structure of India and envisioned the establishment of a Turkish Empire.
• Despite facing resistance and defeats, he remained committed to his goal, demonstrating a higher ideal compared to Mahmud Ghaznavi, who primarily sought plunder.

Political Strategy:

• Ghori displayed political foresight in dealing with Rajput rulers, preventing them from uniting against him.
• He avoided immediate annexation of Delhi and Ajmer after the Second Battle of Tarain, allowing local rulers to maintain some authority.
• His approach helped consolidate Turkish power in India by setting up military posts and garrisoning them with Turkish troops.

Judgment of Character:

• Muhammad Ghori was adept at selecting capable individuals for his service, delegating responsibilities effectively.
• Notable figures like Qutubuddin Aibak, Tajuddin Yalduz, and Malik Bahauddin Tughril were trained by Ghori and played crucial roles in his successes.
• Professor A.B.M. Habibullah emphasizes that while Ghori did not establish a lasting dynasty, he trained loyal and capable individuals to uphold his ideals.

Strength of Character:

• Ghori's success was primarily due to his strong character and unwavering ideals, even after initial setbacks in India and defeats by Khwarizm Shah.
• He meticulously planned his campaigns, adapting strategies as needed and avoiding unnecessary risks.
• After setbacks like the battle of Anhilwara and Tarain, he regrouped with better preparations and refined military strategies.
• His ability to oversee multiple campaigns, including those in Central Asia while engaged in India, contributed to his ultimate success.

Foundation of Turkish Rule:

• Ghori is regarded as the true founder of Turkish rule in India, marking his greatest achievement and significance.
• Despite limited time for administration in India, as he primarily ruled from Ghazni and Ghur, the task of governing his conquests was largely entrusted to Qutubuddin Aibak.
• Ghori also supported scholars like Fakhruddin Razi and Nizami Uruzi, but his foremost accomplishment was the establishment of the Turkish Empire in India, adding a pivotal chapter to Indian history.

Causes of the Success of Turks and Defeat of Rajputs

Arnold Toynbee's Perspective on Civilizational Collapse:

• Toynbee argued that the fall of great civilizations was not primarily due to foreign invasion, but rather a result of internal decay. Invasions merely delivered the final blow.

Factors Contributing to Pre-Muslim Indian Society's Decline:

• Decadent political structure
• Outdated military organization
• Stagnant social structure
• Socio-religious defects
• Economic imbalance

Turkish Invaders vs. Rajputs:

• Military Organization: Superior to the Rajputs.
• Unity of Command: Followed one leader, ensuring effective coordination.
• Warfare Techniques: Up-to-date with the latest strategies.
• Archery and Cavalry: Effective use of archery and well-disciplined cavalry against Rajput infantry.
• Strategies: Employed tactics like sham fights, ambushes, surprise attacks, and reserve armies.
• Religious Zeal: Motivated by the desire to spread Islam and the promise of paradise through martyrdom.
• Material Incentives: Driven by the promise of loot and plunder, with rewards and promotions based on performance.
• Career Opportunities: Soldiers could achieve high ranks, including sultan or commander, based on merit.
• Recruitment: Attracted many Central Asian youths eager for adventure and wealth.

Rajputs:

• Military Organization: Based on outdated concepts and confined to local principalities.
• Weapons and Tactics: Did not improve or innovate in weapons, tactics, or equipment.
• Selection of Soldiers: Focused on numbers rather than quality.
• Traditions of Warfare: Followed Hindu traditions that limited their tactics and made them more humane.
• Chivalry: More focused on honor and chivalrous conduct than on winning at any cost.
• Non-Violence: The principle of non-violence made them non-aggressive, even in defense.

Decline of Ancient Indian Civilization:

• The 11th and 12th centuries marked the decline of ancient Indian civilization, where Toynbee's concept of Beat-Rally-Rout was evident.
• The Rajput leadership faced challenges it could not overcome, leading to the decline.
• Rajput polity suffered significant setbacks from invasions, first by Mahmud Ghaznavi and then by Muhammad Ghori.
• Rajput leadership failed to adapt and became rigid, trying to impose its will despite its decline.
• Rajputs, representing a dominant minority, lost their creative edge and succumbed to Turkish invaders due to their pride.

Impact of Turkish Conquest of India

• Establishment of Turkish Rule: The Turks' victory over the Rajputs marked the beginning of Turkish rule in North India.
• Centralized Government: Turkish rulers like Iltutmish, Alauddin Khalji, and Ghiyasuddin aimed to overthrow feudalism and establish a strong centralized government. They succeeded in creating a uniform system of administration across North India.
• Revival of External Contacts: During the Turkish rule, India reestablished contact with Asian and African countries, ending the period of isolation experienced during the Rajput era.
• Urban Revolution: The Turkish conquest led to an urban revolution, allowing people of various classes, castes, and religions to live together in cities without discrimination. This inclusivity contributed to the growth and development of urban centers.
• Growth of Trade and Industries: Factors like contacts with the outside world, administrative unity, city growth, and a coinage system fostered the growth of trade and industries, leading to increased prosperity in India.
• Cultural Integration: The adoption of Persian as the court language facilitated cultural integration between Hindus and Muslims, as both communities learned Persian.
• Challenge to the Caste System: While the caste system among Hindus could not be abolished, the Turkish rule weakened caste distinctions and untouchability, providing protection to lower castes.
• Military Reforms: The Turks improved India's military organization and strategies by centralizing the army, emphasizing cavalry, enhancing arms, and increasing army mobility. This made the Indian army more efficient and comparable to the best in Asia, enabling successful repulsion of Mongol invasions.
• Indo-Muslim Culture: The Turkish rule fostered the growth of Indo-Muslim culture by blending Hindu and Muslim influences, creating a new societal fabric in India.