Alauddin Khalji: Conquests and Territorial Expansion, Agrarian and Economic Measure | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Allauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

Alauddin Khalji's Rise to Power and Governance Approach:

• Alauddin Khalji ascended to the throne by treacherously murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji.
• He established a highly centralized government and began to view himself as the "Shadow of God," representing divine authority.
• Alauddin rejected Jalaluddin's principles of benevolence and humanitarianism, deeming them weak and inappropriate for the times. Instead, he embraced Balban's theory that fear was the foundation of good governance, applying this principle to both nobles and common people.
• In response to early rebellions, including one by his nephew Aqat Khan, Alauddin implemented harsh measures to maintain control over the nobles.
• When some Mongol soldiers involved in the campaign against Gujarat rebelled, claiming a large share of the war spoils, Alauddin responded by imprisoning their wives and children in Delhi, a practice considered novel by the historian Barani.
• By the time Alauddin Khalji took power, the Delhi Sultanate was well-established, allowing him to pursue internal reforms aimed at improving administration, strengthening the army, enhancing the land revenue system, and ensuring citizen welfare.
• Alauddin agreed with Jalaluddin Khalji's view that a truly Islamic state was not feasible in the Indian context. He believed that splendor, punishments not sanctioned by sharia, and other measures were necessary for the state's welfare.
• Barani noted that Alauddin felt state matters were independent of sharia rules, with kings handling administration and qazis and muftis dealing with legal matters.
• During Alauddin's reign, non-Turks were no longer marginalized, leading to the rise of figures like Zafar Khan, Nusrat Khan, and Malik Kafur, the latter being a non-Turk slave captured in Gujarat.
• Even Hindu leaders, like Malik Nayak, were given significant commands, with Nayak leading an army against the Mongols with Muslim officers under his command.

Allauddin administrative reforms/regulations

Regulation-1:

• Revocation of all grants such as Inams, Waqf, Milkh, and Idrarat pensions.
• Officials were instructed to extract money from nobles and the general populace.
• Alauddin Khalji, similar to Balban, believed in not leaving people with enough resources to consider rebellion.
• All charitable lands assigned in waqf or inam were confiscated to compel people to work for their livelihood, reducing their means to contemplate revolt.
• Agrarian reforms aimed at reducing Hindus to a state of destitution to prevent rebellions.

Regulation-2:

• Establishment of a spy network, reviving Balban’s system, to gather information on nobles, state events, and public activities.

Regulation-3:

• Prohibition of wine drinking, as it was considered a cause for revolts, despite the ongoing buying and selling of wine.

Regulation-4:

• Nobles were prohibited from associating with each other or hosting social gatherings without the Sultan's permission, even for marriage alliances.

Military reform:

Alauddin Khilji's Military Reforms:

• Alauddin Khilji maintained a large and powerful standing army to protect and strengthen his empire.
• He introduced the branding of horses (dagh) and the maintenance of descriptive registers of soldiers (huliya) to prevent fraudulent practices and ensure the integrity of the military.

Alauddin abolished the Jagir system and paid the salaries in cash.

Military Reforms and Expansion under Alauddin Khalji:

• Alauddin Khalji set the annual pay for soldiers at 234 tankas, with an extra 78 tankas for soldiers responsible for two horses.
• Ariz-i-Mumalik was responsible for appointing soldiers.

Territorial Expansion After Iltutmish:

• After the death of Iltutmish in 1235, the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate's boundaries halted.
• For nearly fifty years, the Sultans focused on consolidating early gains by strengthening the fiscal and administrative base.

Renewed Expansion Under the Khaljis:

• The next phase of territorial expansion began in the fourteenth century under the Khaljis.
• Alauddin Khalji's administrative and economic measures helped consolidate and broaden the Sultanate's base.
• The Khaljis' openness in recruiting officials, administrators, and soldiers from various backgrounds, including Indian Muslims and Hindus, along with internal administrative restructuring, facilitated rapid territorial expansion.

The expansion took place in several phases

Expansion of Delhi Sultanate:

• First Phase: Regions near Delhi, like Gujarat,Rajasthan, and Malwa, were brought under Delhi's control.
• Second Phase: Areas in present-day Maharashtra and the Deccan were raided and forced to accept Delhi's authority but were not directly controlled.
• Third Phase: Under Alauddin's later years and Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq's reign(1320-1324), central control was extended over the entire Deccan, and Bengal was also reasserted.

West and Central India

Gujarat (1299):

• First territorial expansion project under Alauddin.
• Alauddin was drawn to Gujarat due to its wealth and flourishing trade, which had historically attracted invaders.
• The army was led by two of Alauddin’s top generals, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan.
• Gujarat was easily conquered, plundered, and its capital, Anhilwara, was sacked.
• Alp Khan was appointed as the governor of the conquered territory.

Malwa (1305):

• The fort of Mandu was captured.
• Ain-ul-Mulk was appointed as governor and successfully brought Ujjain, Dhar, and Chadderi under his control.
• Siwana and Jalor were also annexed during this campaign.

North-West and North India

Multan Expedition:

• The expedition to Multan was not about expanding territory but was part of a strategy to consolidate power.
• A surviving member of Jalaluddin's family had fled to Multan.
• Arkali Khan was captured, and Multan came under Delhi's control once again.

Ranthambhor Campaign:

• In 1300, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan to attack Ranthambhor, ruled by Rai Harmir.
• Due to difficulties, Alauddin had to take command himself.
• The siege lasted over six months.
• Ultimately, the women inside the fort performed jauhar, and Hamir Dev died fighting.

Chittor Siege:

• Alauddin attacked the kingdom of Chittor in 1303 as part of his consolidation policy.
• After several assaults, the ruler of Chittor offered to surrender to the Sultan.
• The fort was later given to Maldeo, a son of the earlier ruler's sister, who remained loyal to Delhi throughout Alauddin's reign.

Deccan and Southward expansion

Devagiri:

• In 1296, during the governorship of Kara, Alauddin plundered Devagiri.
• In 1306-7, due to Rai Ram Chandra Dev of Devagiri not paying tribute, Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to subdue him, assisted by Ainul Mulk Multani and Alp Khan.
• Rai Ram Chandra Dev surrendered and became a protectorate under Alauddin, who aimed to amass wealth rather than annex territories.
• Ram Chandra Dev was restored to the throne of Devagiri with the promise of regular tribute payments to the Sultan.

Further South:

• Malik Kafur’s successful handling of Devagiri boosted the Sultan’s confidence in him, leading to further military campaigns in the South.
• The expeditions aimed at acquiring wealth from southern kingdoms without actual territorial annexation.
• Sirpur and Warangal were attacked and looted, with Warangal yielding enormous wealth but remaining a protectorate state.
• In the second expedition to the South, Dwarasamudra and Madura (capital of the Pandyas) were targeted, accumulating wealth and establishing protectorate states.
• The campaigns in the Deccan and South had two main goals: formal recognition of Delhi Sultanate’s authority and maximum wealth accumulation with minimal loss of life.
• Alauddin’s policy of non-annexation but recognition of suzerainty showcased his political acumen.
• Amir Khusrau documented these southward campaigns in his work Khazain-ul Fatuh.
• After Malik Kafur’s return from Ma’bar, the situation in the Deccan prompted a reassessment of non-annexation policy. Following the death of Ram Dev of Devagiri in 1312 and his son’s declaration of independence, Devagiri was annexed under Mubarak Khalji, Alauddin’s successor.

Alauddin’s Response to Mongol Invasions:

• The Mongol invasions of 1297-98 and 1299 were successfully repelled, marking the first two conquests.
• These early successes led to a period of relaxation for Alauddin.
• However, by the end of 1299, the Mongols reappeared and reached Delhi, catching Alauddin off guard. He managed to prevent their entry into the capital, but the event was a significant shock, resulting in the death of the capable general Zafar Khan during the conflict.
• This prompted Alauddin to take the Mongol threat seriously.
• A strong rampart was constructed around Delhi for defense, forts were repaired, and a robust military presence was established at Samana and Dipalpur.
• A large standing army was recruited to bolster defenses.
• In 1303, the Mongols returned and approached Delhi again. However, Alauddin had fortified the area outside Siri, forcing the Mongols to retreat without a fight.
• In 1305, the Mongols appeared once more, this time bypassing Delhi and reaching the Doab region, where they were decisively defeated by Alauddin’s forces under Malik Nayak.

Agrarian and economic measures

Alauddin Khalji's Agrarian and Market Reforms:

• Alauddin Khalji's agrarian and market reforms were aimed at internal restructuring of the sultanate and the need to create a large army to defend against Mongol invasions.
• The Barani account provides insights into the revenue system during Khalji's time, highlighting his stern measures in this area.

Agrarian reform

Bringing Land under Khalisa:

• The land from Dipalpur and Lahore to Kara near modern Allahabad was brought under khalisa, meaning it was not assigned to any nobles as iqta.
• The state demand was set at 50% of the land's produce.
• The land was measured(masahat), and revenue was fixed based on the yield of each unit of land, using the term wafa-i biswa.
• Alauddin also imposed Kharaj,Jazia, and Karai-Gharia-Charai taxes on peasants.

Curbing privileges of intermediaries:

• The privileges of intermediaries such as Khots,Muqaddam, and Choudhary were abolished.
• Both intermediaries and peasants were required to pay the same 50% demand without distinction.
• Intermediaries were reduced to the level of balahar, the lowest in village society.
• Perquisites of intermediaries were removed, including grazing and house tax(Ghari).

Reform in revenue administration:

• The state established direct relations with peasants, leading to an expansion of revenue officials.
• Alauddin ensured the efficient and honest working of revenue administration by appointing accountants (mutsarrif), collectors (amils), and agents (gumashtas).
• Local officials were instructed to be strict in collecting land revenue, often forcing cultivators to sell food grains at cheap prices.
• Accounts of officials were audited strictly, and those found guilty of corruption were severely punished.
• Barani noted that officials could not take bribes and were often subjected to hardships or imprisonment.

Mode of payment:

• During the 13th century, payment in cash was common, becoming widespread by the 14th century.
• However, Alauddin preferred payment in grain, especially from the khalisa lands.
• The preference for grain collection aimed to create a reserve of grain for contingencies and to use storage for price-fixation measures.
• The measures were primarily for the khalisa lands, covering the heart of the empire.

Objective:

• The objective was to free peasants from illegal exactions by intermediaries.
• Alauddin's policy aimed to prevent the burden of the strong from falling on the weak and to check the power of intermediaries.
• The reforms were not socialistic but were responses to the threat posed by the Mongols.

Impact of land revenue reform:

• The 50% demand was the highest in Indian agrarian history.
• While peasants were protected from intermediaries, they faced a higher tax rate.
• The uniform rate was regressive taxation, benefiting the state at the expense of intermediaries and peasants.
• Intermediaries were removed from direct revenue collection but still had to maintain law and order without remuneration.
• Corruption and embezzlement among revenue officials were rampant, leading to the imprisonment of 8,000 to 10,000 officials.

Market Reforms

Alauddin Khalji and Price Control:

• Alauddin Khalji was the first ruler to systematically address the issue of price control.
• He successfully maintained stable prices for a significant period.
• According to historian Barani, Alauddin established three markets in Delhi to regulate prices.

Food Market

Alauddin's Control Over Food Prices:

• Alauddin aimed to control food-grain supply, transportation, and distribution to regulate prices.
• He established royal stores in Delhi to prevent traders from creating artificial scarcity.
• Karwanis or banjaras were responsible for transporting food-grains, overseen by officials called shuhna.
• Alauddin implemented regulations to ensure a steady supply of food-grains, such as increasing Khalisa land and fixing land revenue.
• Barani noted that cultivators were required to bring all food-grains to market and sell at official prices, with officers enforcing these rules.
• As a result of these measures, food-grain prices fell significantly, even during times of famine.
• Alauddin also introduced a rationing system during shortages, distributing grains from government stores based on the number of dependants.
• In the cloth market,sarai-i-adl, Alauddin regulated prices by requiring merchants to sell at government rates and punishing those who violated this.
• Merchants were registered and required to commit to bringing and selling specific quantities of goods at official prices.
• Alauddin provided advances to wealthy merchants to ensure compliance with these regulations, and merchants were given responsibility for enforcing these orders.
• Price controls on cloth and other goods were implemented not only for regulation but also to appease the nobility.

The market for horses, cattle and slaves

Supply of Good Quality Horses at Fair Prices:

• Essential for the military and soldiers.
• Horse trade was monopolistic, controlled by Multanis and Afghans.
• Horses were sold in the market by middlemen or dallals.

Powerful Dallals and Corruption:

• Rich dallals were as powerful as market officials.
• Engaged in bribery and corrupt practices.
• Horse merchants colluded with dallals to raise prices.

Alauddin's Measures Against Dallals:

• Alauddin took harsh measures against corrupt dallals.
• Dallals were banished or imprisoned.
• Quality and price of horses were set based on quality.

Direct Sales to Military Department:

• Alauddin aimed to have horse merchants sell directly to the military department (diwan-i-arz).
• Efforts to eliminate middlemen were only partly successful.
• Prices set by Alauddin remained stable throughout his reign.

Price Fixing for Slaves and Cattle:

• Prices for slave boys,slave girls, and cattle were also fixed.
• Prices aimed to make life easier for nobles,government servants, and soldiers.
• Slaves were needed for domestic and personal service.
• Animals were required for meat,transport,milk, and milk products.

Officers Appointed for Market Regulation:
Three types of officers were appointed to implement reforms:

Shahna-i-mandi: Controller of markets.

• Maintained a register of all merchants.

Barids: Intelligence officers.
Munhiyan: Secret spies.

Creation of Diwani-Riyasat:

• A separate department called Diwani-Riyasat was established.
• Led by an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.

Regulations for Market Control:

• Detailed regulations (Zawabit) were framed for the administration of markets.
• Regulation 1: Sultan fixed prices of all commodities.
• Regulation 2: Appointment of shahna-i-mandi,barids, and munhiyan.
• Regulation 3: Establishment of granaries in Delhi and Rajasthan.
• Regulation 4: Supervision of grain merchants by Shahna-i-mandi.
• Regulation 5: Prohibition of hoarding.
• Regulation 6: Vigorous collection of land revenue.
• Regulation 7: Sultan received daily reports from officers.

Objective of Market reforms

Reasons for Market Reforms by Barani and Amir Khusrau

Barani's Perspective:

• He believed that Sultan Alauddin Khalji implemented market reforms post-Mongol siege to recruit a large army without exhausting treasuries.
• Price controls and falling prices allowed for the recruitment of more soldiers.
• Barani also thought the reforms aimed to impoverish Hindus, mainly traders, to prevent rebellion.

Amir Khusrau's View:

• Khusrau argued that the reforms were for public welfare, ensuring cheap food grains and combating famine.

Focus of Reforms:

• The market reforms were more about administrative and military needs rather than internal restructuring.

Application of Regulations:

• It is unclear if the market regulations applied only to Delhi or extended to other towns in the empire.
• Barani noted that Delhi's regulations were often followed in other towns.
• The army was stationed in both Delhi and other towns, indicating a wider application.
• However, there is insufficient information to be certain about this.

Impact of Market Reform on Economy

Positive Impacts:

• During Alauddin Khilji's reign, the prices of goods were kept low, and essential items like food were readily available. He effectively curbed hoarding, black marketing, and exploitation by middlemen, ensuring fair trade practices.
• The regulations included provisions for rationing grain during times of drought or famine, demonstrating a proactive approach to food security.
• There were no reports of large-scale famine, death, or starvation during Alauddin Khilji's rule, indicating effective management of resources.
• Alauddin Khilji focused on controlling the supply of food grains from villages, overseeing their transportation to the city, and ensuring proper distribution to citizens.
• The significant and lasting impact of these reforms was the promotion of a market economy in villages and a stronger connection between urban and rural areas.
• Delhi emerged as a major market for fine cloth, with fixed prices attracting traders from various regions to buy and sell at higher prices elsewhere.

Negative Impacts

Price Control and Its Impact on Trade:

• Alauddin Khilji's price control system severely impacted trade. Merchants struggled to make sufficient profits.
• The regulations were enforced so strictly that no corn dealer, farmer, or anyone else could secretly hold back grain and sell it above the fixed price.
• Severe punishments for merchants who violated the rules discouraged many from continuing in business.

Impact on Cultivators:

• Cultivators were adversely affected by the low prices of food grains and high land revenue.
• Khilji's policy left cultivators with barely enough to cover their food needs and continue cultivation.

Bureaucratic Controls and Corruption:

• Khilji's regulations led to bureaucratic controls and corruption.
• His approach might have been more effective if he had limited price controls to essential commodities or those directly used by the military, rather than attempting to control the prices of everything.
• Such widespread, centralized controls were likely to be violated, leading to punishments that fostered resentment among the populace.

Impact of market reform on society

Impact of Cheap Articles in Delhi:

• The sale of affordable articles in Delhi attracts a diverse group of individuals, including learned men and skilled craftsmen.
• This influx leads to cultural exchange and the development of a composite culture within the society.

Transportation of Food Grains and Socio-Cultural Exchange:

• Transportation of food grains from the countryside is primarily carried out by karwans and banjaras.
• These groups are organized into corporate bodies, facilitating the exchange of diverse ideas and contributing to the evolving socio-cultural life of Delhi.

Alauddin Khalji's Social Justice and Economic Policies:

• Alauddin Khalji's policies reflect a form of social justice by oppressing the elite while providing relief to the common people.
• The removal of middlemen and the reduction of their power lead to the social degradation of these intermediaries.
• Khalji's price control system strengthens his military and administration, providing stability and employment to the populace.

Impact on Social Unrest and Military Expeditions:

• Through employment generation, Khalji mitigates social unrest, safeguards against the Mongol threat, suppresses local chief revolts, and leads successful military expeditions to South India.

Crime Control and Social Resentment:

• With the help of officers and spies, Khalji implements strict regulations that lead to a decrease in crime rates and the establishment of the rule of law.
• Road safety measures facilitate the easy transport of goods by traders.
• Despite the reduction in criminal activities, Khalji's harsh methods foster societal resentment.

How far aims were achieved

During Alauddin Khalji's reign:

• Prices of goods were low.
• Foodstuffs and other necessary items were easily available.
• Hoarding,black marketing,cheating by the business community, and exploitation by middlemen were effectively checked.

No large-scale famines,deaths, or starvation were reported during his rule.

Alauddin Khalji was able to raise a large army and successfully oppose Mongol invasions.

Why market control didn’t survive

Market Control Measures After Alauddin Khalji

• Market control measures were no longer heard of after the time of Alauddin Khalji.
• A capable administration was crucial for the success of price control. The lack of a competent administration could be a reason for its discontinuation.
• Irfan Habib suggests that price control was abandoned because low prices meant lower revenues. Price control was only feasible when the low-price zone was restricted.
• With the Mongol threat diminished, the army and expenditure needed to be spread more widely, leading to the dismantling of price control.
• Alauddin's regulations caused bureaucratic controls and corruption. If he had focused on controlling prices of essential commodities or military supplies, instead of everything, the controls might have been more effective.
• Alauddin Khalji's market reforms were temporary and designed to address specific situations. His state-controlled economy, built on force, ended with his death.