Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian Measures, Achievements in Civil Engg., Decline of the Sultanate | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The 14th Century: Firuz Shah Tughluq

After death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1351, Firoz Tughluq (a cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq) had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the nobles.

His nature of kingship

Firuz Tughlaq's Efforts and Policies:

Firuz Tughlaq aimed to restore a benevolent and welfare-oriented state, similar to what Jalaluddin Khalji had attempted.

• Irrigation: Improved irrigation systems.
• Marriage Bureau: Set up a marriage bureau.
• Employment Bureau: Established an employment bureau.
• Public Works: Promoted public works.
• Education: Founded madrasas and hospitals.
• Diwan-i-Khairat: Created a new department to care for orphans and widows.
• Scholar Patronage: Supported scholars like Barani and Afif.

Policy of Conciliation:

• Firuz sought to win over various groups such as nobles,administrators,soldiers,clergymen, and peasants who had been alienated by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Linking State and Religion:

• He emphasized ruling based on Islam, appeased Ulemas, and abolished un-Islamic taxes.
• He imposed Jaziya on Brahmins and was guided by Ulemas.
• However, he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis, resembling Sikandar Lodi and Aurangzeb in this regard.

Approach to Nobles and Muqtis:

• Firuz adopted an appeasement approach towards nobles and muqtis, making iqta hereditary.
• He maintained a link with the caliph by using the caliph's name on coins and in khutba.

Military Expeditions:

• Firuz led campaigns in Bengal,Orissa,Nagarkot, and lower Sindh, but these did not expand the territories of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The two campaigns in Bengal (1353-54 and 1359-60) aimed to recover Bengal, which had declared independence from Delhi. However, Firuz was unable to capture the fort and resorted to negotiations for peace.
• The Orissa expedition aimed to reaffirm Delhi's overlordship over the region but ultimately ended in a truce with the Orissa ruler agreeing to pay regular tribute.
• Similar outcomes were observed in the Nagarkot and Thatta campaigns, which also did not result in territorial gains.

Shift in Focus:

• After several unsuccessful military expeditions, Firuz shifted the focus of the state towards development and welfare.

Later Reign and Bigotry:

• In the latter part of his reign, Firuz became increasingly narrow in his understanding of religion, lacking the broad philosophical perspective of Muhammad Tughlaq.
• He interpreted religion narrowly, engaging in acts of bigotry and oppression against certain sections of Hindus and sometimes Muslims.
• This shift weakened his concept of a benevolent state.

Firuz as an orthodox

Firuz Tughlaq's Religious Policies and Practices:

• In his autobiography, the Futuhat-e-firozshahi,Firuz Tughlaq mentions his orthodox measures but does not mention banning the consumption of wine.
• Despite his strict measures, he enjoyed music and songs during festivals and Friday prayers, a practice he maintained throughout his reign.
• Firuz celebrated Shab Barat with great enthusiasm, a practice later condemned by Aurangzeb as un-Islamic.
• As he aged, Firuz became more rigid and bigoted in his religious beliefs.
• Although initially a follower of the liberal sufi saint Fariduddin Ganj Shakar, Firuz experienced a profound spiritual encounter with the warrior saint Salar Masud Ghazi, leading him to adopt a stricter interpretation of Islamic practices.
• He banned taxes not sanctioned by shara, ordered the erasure of paintings with human figures from his palace, and prohibited the use of gold and silver vessels for dining.
• Firuz also banned clothing made of pure silk or brocade and destroyed temples built by Hindus, perceiving them as violations of shara.
• In a notable act of intolerance, he publicly executed a Brahmin accused of conducting idol-worship and insisted on collecting jizya from Brahmins previously exempted from this tax.
• Despite individual acts of intolerance, Firuz did not fundamentally undermine the concept of broad religious freedom for dhimmis and Hindu subjects.
• His reign saw the translation of numerous Sanskrit works on music, medicine, and other subjects into Persian.
• Firuz treated Hindu chiefs with respect, allowing some to sit on the floor in his court, a rare honor.
• However, his occasional acts of intolerance and preference for theologians over others strengthened the position of orthodox ulemas and weakened the policy of broad religious freedom.
• Firuz also reversed the trend towards a composite ruling class of Muslims and Hindus established by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Administrative reforms

Firuz Tughlaq's Administrative Reforms and Their Impact:

Firuz Tughlaq implemented a series of administrative reforms that initially gained him popularity but ultimately weakened the central government over time.

Conciliation and Support for Nobility:

• Firuz aimed to conciliate all sections of society, including the nobility. He sought a stable and cohesive nobility.
• He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, a loyal noble trained by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, as wazir, delegating much administrative work to him.
• Senior nobles like Tatar Khan were also honored. Unlike his predecessor, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz did not favor foreign nobles.

Generous Salaries and Iqtas:

• Firuz awarded high salaries to nobles through grants of iqtas, based on a new valuation of land income (jama) established at the beginning of his reign.
• Nobles benefited from any extensions and improvements in cultivation during this period.

Hereditary Nobility:

• Firuz attempted to establish a hereditary character for nobility, transferring offices and dignities to the sons of deceased officeholders.
• Notable examples include Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul and Zafar Khan, whose sons succeeded them in their posts.
• The rule of heredity was not applied universally to senior posts, strengthening the position of nobles relative to the Sultan.

Army Reforms and Soldiering Families:

• Firuz aimed to create an army from elements with a tradition of soldiering and a long-term stake in the state's stability.
• Soldiers were primarily paid through grants of villages (wajh) near Delhi and the doab, with 80% of the central army compensated this way.
• Firuz emphasized the hereditary nature of soldiering, allowing soldiers' villages to pass to their sons or other relatives upon their death.
• He also allowed soldiers to be replaced by their sons or other family members if they became old.

Issues with Dagh System:

• Firuz undermined the system of dagh(branding of horses) by extending deadlines for horse production and granting exceptions to soldiers.
• He even provided financial assistance to soldiers to bribe clerks for passing sub-standard mounts.

Slave Corps and Central Army:

• In an attempt to strengthen the central army, Firuz ordered the capture of slaves during wars and their selection for court service.
• A large number of slaves were collected, with some becoming artisans and a central corps of armed slaves established.
• This corps, consisting mostly of converted Hindus, created a duality in administration, countering the power of the nobility and the standing army.

Conflict and Administration Transition:

• Conflict between the corp of slaves and the standing army emerged during Firuz's reign.
• Firuz relied on Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, a capable officer, for effective administration. After Khan-i-Jahan's death, his son Jauna Shah continued the tasks with reasonable efficiency.
• However, Jauna Shah's ambition and the declining power of Firuz led to conflicts, especially after Firuz's death.

Agrarian measures 

Wrote off Sondhar:

• Firuz Shah Tughluq erased the advances to peasants known as Sondhar, which had been given by Md. Bin Tughluq.

New Valuation (Jama):

• Khwaja Hisamuddin Junaid was appointed to reassess the revenues.
• Khwaja Hisamuddin Junaid and his team took six years to tour the country and establish a new valuation.
• The Jama amount was set at six crores and seventy-five lakhs tankas, based on rough estimates, and remained unchanged during Firuz Tughluq's reign.
• Assessment Basis: The assessment was based on sharing rather than measurement, meaning that any increase or decrease would be shared by both the peasant and the State.

Improving Cropping Pattern:

• Efforts were made to improve the cropping pattern by promoting superior crops like wheat and sugar-cane over inferior ones.

Gardens:

• Firuz was passionate about planting orchards and is believed to have planted 1200 gardens around Delhi.
• Income from Orchards: The orchards primarily produced grapes and dry fruits, generating an income of 180,000 tankas for the sultan.

Abolition of Taxes/Abwabs (Miscellaneous Cesses):

• In his later years, Firuz aimed to align the agricultural taxation system with shara principles by abolishing taxes not sanctioned by it.
• Contemporaries listed twenty-one abolished taxes, including the ghari (house tax) and various cesses on produce.
• The effectiveness of these abolitions is debated, as many taxes were later abolished by Akbar and Aurangzeb.

Irrigation: Canals:

• Firuz established Hissar-Firuza(modern Hissar) and initiated the digging of two canals to supply water from the Sutlej and Jamuna rivers.
• The canals merged near Karnal, providing ample water to Hissar and enabling the cultivation of two crops a year: spring (kharif) and winter (rabi).
• Firuz also dug other canals, primarily in present-day Haryana, to support agriculture.
• The irrigation scheme included the construction of numerous wells,dams, and reservoirs, significantly boosting agricultural productivity.
• Special officers were appointed during the rainy season to monitor watercourse banks and report on inundations.
• The irrigation efforts helped Firuz overcome famine, a major issue during Md. Bin Tughluq's reign, and expanded cultivation into previously barren areas.
• Increased production led to a decline in commodity prices, and Firuz's reign saw notable price reductions compared to Md. Bin Tughluq's time.
• Firuz's success in agriculture also benefited him personally, as he was entitled to a 10 percent extra charge for his irrigation efforts, contributing to his personal income.

Achievement in Civil engineering and Public Work activities: 

Founding new cities:

• Firuz established many well-planned and beautiful cities with palatial buildings,mosques,mausoleums,madrasas,rest houses,hospitals,tanks,dams, and gardens.
• Some towns built around Delhi include Hissar-Feroza,Ferozpur, and Fatehabad.
• He created a new capital,Ferozabad, along the Jamuna River, of which only the Kotla Feroz Shah fort remains today.
• Firuz renovated Jaunpur in East Uttar Pradesh and established new towns (qasbas) as grain markets due to agricultural development.
• These new towns also became centers for trade and handicrafts, with some of the 12,000 slaves trained as artisans being sent there.

Canals for irrigation:

• Firuz constructed six canals for irrigation, including two canals to bring water to Hissar from the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers, enabling the cultivation of two crops per year (spring and winter).
• Canals were also built from the Ghaggar and Yamuna rivers, with one canal supplying water to Ferozpur.
• The construction of these canals expanded cultivation in existing villages and led to the creation of new villages.
• Firuz also built numerous wells,dams, and reservoirs, which further promoted agricultural development.
• Afif noted that the area between the Sutlej and Koil(modern Aligarh) became fully cultivated.

Rest houses (inns):

• Firuz established 120 rest houses for travelers, where they could stay for up to three days.
• Most of these rest houses were located in Delhi and Firuzabad.

Mosques:

• Mosques were erected in various localities to serve the growing population.

Madrassas:

• Madrassas were built to enhance the cultural significance of the cities.
• The Madarsha-i-Firuz Shahi was constructed in a garden near Hauz-i-Khas at Firuzabad, and another madrasa was built at Siri, surrounded by an attractive panorama.

Tanks, reservoirs, wells, and bunds

• Tanks, reservoirs, wells, and bunds were built and repaired to ensure a steady water supply to the cities.

Hospitals (Dar-ul-Safa):

• Firuz opened numerous hospitals(Dar-ul-Safa) where medicines were distributed free of charge.

Gardens:

• Firuz is said to have planted 1,200 gardens around Delhi, with most orchards growing grapes and dry fruits.
• The Sultan’s income from these gardens was 180,000 tankas.

Pillars:

• Firuz Tughlaq transported two Ashokan pillars from Meerut and Topra(Haryana), installing one at the Kotla in Firozabad and the other at a hunting lodge on the Ridge.

Repair and restoration work:

• Firuz’s efforts in repairing and restoring ruined buildings were notable.
• He established a public works department that repaired many old buildings and mausoleums, including the Madarsha of Shamshuddin, which was furnished with sandalwood doors.
• Sandalwood doors were also supplied to the tomb of Alauddin.
• The city of Jahanpanah, founded by Muhammad Tughluq, was repaired, and the upper storey of the Qutub Minar, damaged by lightning, was restored.
• Firuz also restored the mosque and tombs of Iltutmish and Alauddin near the Qutub Minar, and repaired the Shamsi Tank and Hauz-i-Alai(present-day Hauz Khas).

Responsibility of Firuz Tughluq for decline of the Sultanate

Though no individual sultan can be held responsible for the downfall of the Delhisultanat, some of the responsibility for the fall of Sultanat lies with Firoz Tughluq:

Firoz Tughluq's Role in the Downfall of the Delhi Sultanate

• Succession Struggles: Firoz Tughluq's indecisiveness about his succession led to a power struggle after his death in 1388. His sons and grandsons fought for the crown, causing instability.
• Power Struggles: Prince Muhammad, Firoz's eldest son, fought against wazir Khan-i-Jahan II and later against a group of slaves trying to seize power. The failure of the slave corps to become kingmakers contributed to the decline.
• Religious Intolerance: Firoz's religious intolerance alienated the Hindu majority, weakening his kingdom. His reforms failed to gain the confidence of Hindus, leading to a fatal reaction against his dynasty.
• Influence of Ulemas: Firoz's reliance on the Ulemas weakened the Sultanate. The Ulemas became arrogant and posed as custodians of Muslim conscience, contributing to disintegration.
• Decentralization: Firoz's system of decentralization gave extensive powers to nobles and officials, ultimately harming the state. His attempt to make nobility hereditary strengthened their position against the Sultan.
• Army Inefficiency: Firoz's effort to make the army hereditary led to inefficiency. Soldiers could pass on their positions to family members, resulting in a decline in army quality.
• Undermining Horse Branding: Firoz weakened the system of branding horses, leading to substandard horses for military service. He granted extensions for branding, undermining army efficiency.
• Slave Corps: Firoz collected 180,000 slaves during his reign, creating a central corps of slaves as an armed guard. This duality in administration countered his efforts for stability and led to conflict.
• Failure as a Conqueror: Firoz's lack of military success weakened the Sultanate. His campaigns in Bengal, Orissa, Nagarkot, and Sindh did not expand Delhi Sultanate territories.
• High Salaries to Nobles: Firoz awarded high salaries to nobles through iqtas, benefiting them from land improvements. This impacted the economic condition of the Sultanate.
• Overall Impact: Despite peace and prosperity during Firoz's reign, his policies and administrative measures significantly contributed to the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate and accelerated its decline.

Decline of Sultanate

A Political Reason Behind the Sultanate's Decline

• Absence of a Universally Accepted Law of Succession: This lack of a clear succession law contributed to the political decline of the Sultanate.
• Struggles Between Nobility and Sultans: Continued conflicts between the ruling Sultans and the nobility were significant factors in the decline.
• Strong Sultans and Noble Support: A strong Sultan could maintain a facade of dynastic stability as long as he had the support of some noble groups.
• Dormant Conflicts: Dissensions among the ruling groups would remain dormant but could erupt violently at the slightest opportunity.
• Initially Effective Iqta System: The iqta system initially supported central authority through transfer and non-permanence, ensuring the Sultan's power.
• Decline of Iqta Principles: The decline of these principles, especially during Feroz Tughluq’s rule, weakened the state’s authority.
• Emergence of Autonomous Regions: The weakening of central authority led to the rise of autonomous and eventually independent political centers in various regions.
• Mongol Invasions: The Mongols attacked the Sultanate intermittently, but these invasions did not significantly impact the Sultanate’s political and economic stability.
• Resistance by Sultans: Balban, Alauddin Khalji, and Muhammad Tughluq successfully resisted Mongol assaults, despite the high costs in money, time, and lives.
• Minimal Damage: While Mongol invasions caused occasional shocks, they did not inflict substantial damage on the economy or the state apparatus.

Nature of Kingship

Succession in the Sultanate: Key Points

• No clear law of succession was established in the Sultanate.
• The hereditary principle was accepted but not consistently followed.
• There was no strict rule of primogeniture (eldest son inheriting).
• In some cases, like Raziya Sultan, even a daughter could be nominated.
• A slave could not claim sovereignty unless he was freed (manumitted).
• Power struggles were common due to the lack of a clear succession rule.
• After Aibak’s death, it was Iltutmish, not Aibak’s son Aram Shah, who took the throne.
• Iltutmish’s death in 1236 A.D. led to a period of strife until Balban, Iltutmish’s slave, gained power in 1266 A.D.
• Balban tried to restore the prestige of the Sultanate, but power struggles continued after his death.
• Various claimants, including Kaiqubad and Kaikhusrau, fought for the throne.
• Alauddin Khalji seized power in 1296 A.D. by killing his uncle Jalaluddin Khalji.
• After Alauddin’s death, there was civil war and power struggles.
• Muhammad Tughluq faced rebellions from amirs.
• Rivalries after Feroz Tughluq led to the rise of the Saiyyids (1414-51 A.D.) and later the Lodis (1451-1526 A.D.).
• The Lodis introduced the Afghan concept of sovereignty, where clans sought to partition the empire.
• After Sikandar Lodi’s death in 1517 A.D., the empire was divided between his sons Ibrahim and Jalal.
• The Afghan nobles maintained tribal militias, which weakened central military efficiency.
• Sikandar Lodi attempted to control ambitious Afghan nobles, but the Afghan polity leaned towards decentralization.

Conflict between the nobility and the Sultans

Political History of the Sultanate Period:

• The rise and fall of the Sultanate were significantly influenced by the actions of the nobles (umara).
• The nobles consistently sought to maximize their economic and political gains.
• During the Ilbarite rule (1206-90 A.D.), conflicts often centered around succession, the organization of the nobility, and the division of power between the nobles and the Sultans.
• When Qutbuddin Aibak became Sultan, his authority was challenged by powerful nobles like Qubacha(Multan and Uchh),Yilduz(Ghazni), and Ali’ Mardan(Bengal).
• Iltutmish, Aibak's successor, resolved these conflicts through a mix of diplomacy and force.
• Iltutmish later organized the nobles into a loyal group called turkan-i chihilgani(“The Forty”).

Sultan and Forty Relation:

• The “Forty” tried to maintain political influence over the Sultan while the Sultan wanted to appoint officers from other groups.
• Iltutmish created a delicate balance between the Sultan's authority and the “Forty” group.
• After Iltutmish’s death, this balance collapsed.
• Iltutmish had named his daughter Raziya as his successor, but many nobles opposed her rule because she tried to include non-Turkish groups (like Abyssinians and Indians) against the “Forty.”
• Some nobles supported her weaker brother Ruknuddin to maintain their power.
• This power struggle continued during Nasiruddin Mahmud’s reign (1246-66 A.D.), exemplified by the rise and fall of Immaduddin Raihan.

Balban’s Reign (1266-87 A.D.):

• Balban, a member of the “Forty” before becoming Sultan, minimized the influence of the turkan-i chihilgani.
• He eliminated many top nobles through assassination or poisoning, including his cousin.
• Balban formed a loyal group of nobles called “Balbani”.
• The removal of experienced “Forty” members left a void that the less experienced “Balbani” could not fill.
• This weakening led to the decline of the Ilbarite rule and the rise of the Khaljis.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 A.D.)

• Alauddin Khalji expanded the composition of nobles, allowing positions based on talent and loyalty rather than race or creed.
• He controlled nobles through various measures and increased land revenue, which likely satisfied them by raising their salaries.
• Territorial expansion provided resources for recruiting talented individuals, such as Malik Kafur, an Abyssinian slave.
• However, this situation was short-lived; after Alauddin Khalji’s death, noble dissension and conspiracy led to the end of the Khalji rule.
• Tughluqs
• Muhammad Tughluq made numerous attempts to organize the nobles but was ultimately unsuccessful.
• He faced betrayal even from those he favored, such as the Khurasanis.
• During his reign, there were twenty-two rebellions, leading to the loss of territories, including what became the Bahmani kingdom.
• After Muhammad Tughluq’s death, the situation worsened. His successor Feroz Tughluq could not be strict with the nobles and granted them many concessions.
• Nobles made their iqtas hereditary, and the appeasement policy of the Sultan pleased them.
• However, this weakened the army, as practices like branding (dagh) of horses, introduced by Alauddin Khalji, were abandoned.
• The decline of the Delhi Sultanate became irreversible.
• Sayyids (1414-51 A.D.) and Lodis (1451-1526 A.D.)
• The Sayyids were not fit to save the Sultanate, and Sikandar Lodi made a final attempt to prevent collapse.
• However, internal strife among the Afghans and their individual ambitions led to the demise of the Sultanate, with Babur as the executioner.

Crisis in Revenue Administration

Introduction of Revenue Assignments:

• In the time of lltutmish, a robust system of revenue assignments(iqta)was established, supporting the extensive bureaucracy.

Feroz Tughluq's Reign:

• During Feroz Tughluq's rule, revenue assignments became hereditary and permanent.
• This system applied even to royal soldiers (yaran-i hashm).
• According to Afif, if an officer died, the position would pass permanently to his son, son-in-law, slave, or woman, in that order.

Sikandar Lodi's Reforms:

• Sikandar Lodi(1489-1517 A.D.) halted the reclamation of fawazil(excess payments to the exchequer by iqtadar).
• There was a significant increase in the tendency of principal assignees to sub-assign their territories during his reign.

Implications of Revenue Assignments:

• The changes in revenue assignments led to a loss of vast revenue resources.
• It allowed assignees to establish strong local roots, resulting in widespread corruption and turbulence.

Rise of Regional States:

• From the beginning, conflicts between the nobles and the Delhi Sultans hampered the Sultanate.
• As long as the centre remained strong, rebellions were successfully suppressed.

Signs of Disintegration:

• Physical disintegration was first observed during Muhammad Tughluq's reign in 1347 A.D. with the rise of the Bahamani kingdom.
• The Sultanate remained largely intact for about fifty years until the Timurid invasion in 1398 A.D., which exposed its vulnerabilities.

Regional Governors Declaring Independence:

• The Timurid invasion gave nobles the opportunity to establish their own independent domains.
• Governors like Khwaja Jahan(Jaunpur, 1394),Dilawar Khan(Malwa, 1401), and Zafar Khan(Gujarat, 1407) declared independence.
• Regions in Rajasthan also asserted independence during the 15th century.

Bengal's Semi-Independence:

• Bengal had been semi-independent since the time of Bughra Khan.

Decline of the Sultanate:

• The Sultanate shrank to a radius of 200 miles around Delhi.
• Loss of fertile provinces like Bengal,Malwa,Jaunpur, and Gujarat greatly diminished revenue resources.
• This decline hindered the centre's ability to wage long wars and conduct campaigns against rebellious elements.

Challenges under the Sayyids and Lodis:

• Under the Sayyids and Lodis, the situation became critical.
• Sultans had to send yearly campaigns for regular revenue collections.
• For instance, forces were dispatched repeatedly to suppress the Katehr and Mewati chiefs from 1414 to 1432 A.D.
• Similarly, chiefs of Bayana and Gwalior resisted paying revenue, leading to repeated campaigns from 1416 to 1506 A.D.

Nominal Control of Sultans:

• Throughout the 15th century, the Sultans' control was largely nominal.
• Minimal efforts could have overthrown the Sultanate during this period.