Foreign Contact: Ibn Battuta’s Accounts | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Born: 1304 in Morocco.
• Famous For: His incredible travels and detailed travel writings.
• Major Work: Wrote "Rehla" (Journey) in Arabic, sharing his adventures, including his time in India.
• Time in India: Visited in 1334.

Extensive Travels:

• Visited most of the known Islamic world and many non-Muslim regions.
• Traveled to North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and China.
• Covered a greater distance than earlier explorers like Marco Polo.

Significance:

• His contributions to history and geography are considered as important as those of any historian or geographer.
• Known for his detailed observations and accounts of the places he visited.

Ibn Battuta’s Acccount of India (During his travel to India as mentioned in Rihla)

Seeking Employment in Delhi:

• Upon reaching Delhi in late 1334, Ibn Battuta sought official employment. He cleverly prepared gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, knowing that the Sultan would reciprocate with even more valuable gifts.

Employment as a Judge:

• Ibn Battuta was hired as a judge, but due to his limited proficiency in Persian, he was provided with two assistants to help him.
• His position also allowed him to participate in the Sultan’s lavish hunting expeditions.

Debt and Generosity of the Sultan:

• Ibn Battuta’s extravagant lifestyle led him into debt, but the generous Sultan helped him by increasing his salary and assigning him another task: overseeing the Qutb al-Din Mubarak mausoleum.
• In this role, Ibn Battuta was responsible for punishing wrongdoers and maintaining the tomb.

Challenges during Famine:

• His job of collecting debts from villages became increasingly difficult due to a devastating famine that struck North India in 1335 and persisted for seven years.

Disintegration of the Empire:

• Sultan Muhammad Tughluq returned from an unsuccessful military campaign against a rebellious faction in the south.
• As the empire began to crumble, army officers and a governor near Delhi also rebelled.
• Demonstrating his military skills, Tughluq managed to secure the town, while Ibn Battuta witnessed these events, providing valuable insights for future historians.

Problems faced by Ibn Battuta

• Ibn Battuta faced suspicion while living in Delhi. He married the daughter of a court official who was executed for plotting a rebellion against the Sultan.
• His friendship with a Sufi holy man brought him serious trouble. The holy man, who avoided politics and lived a strictly religious life, angered the Sultan by refusing to follow his orders.
• In revenge, the Sultan had the holy man arrested, tortured, and executed. The day after the execution, the Sultan asked for a list of the holy man's friends, and Ibn Battuta's name was on it.
• For days, Ibn Battuta was kept under guard, fearing for his life and thinking he might be executed.

Escape from Delhi:

• Ibn Battuta was afraid for his life while serving as a judge under the moody and harsh Sultan Muhammad Tughluq in India.
• However, knowing Ibn Battuta's passion for travel and exploration, the Sultan gave him a fascinating task.
• The Sultan wanted Ibn Battuta to be his ambassador to the Mongol court in China.
• Ibn Battuta was to accompany 15 Chinese messengers back to their homeland and carry shiploads of gifts to the Chinese emperor.
• This mission allowed Ibn Battuta to escape the control of Muhammad Tughluq and explore more lands of Dar ul-Islam.
• In 1341, Ibn Battuta set out from Delhi, leading a group bound for China. He was in charge of about 1,000 soldiers to protect the treasure and supplies until they could board ships to China.

Attack on Ibn Battuta’s group

• A few days outside Delhi, Ibn Battuta's group was attacked by about 4,000 Hindu rebels.
• Despite being outnumbered, they defeated the rebels easily.

Separation and Robbery:

• Later, Ibn Battuta was separated from his companions during another attack.
• He was confronted by forty Hindus who robbed him of everything except his clothes.

Narrow Escape:

• Some robbers kept Ibn Battuta in a cave overnight, planning to kill him in the morning.
• Fortunately, he convinced them to let him go in exchange for his clothes since he had almost nothing left.

Rescue:

• Eight days later, exhausted, barefoot, and in only his trousers, Ibn Battuta was rescued by a Muslim who took him to a village.
• Two days later, he rejoined his party and was ready to continue his mission to China.

Journey to Cambay and Gandhar:

• After a few days of rest, they traveled to the coastal city of Cambay, which was bustling with foreign traders living in fine homes.
• From there, they went to Gandhar and boarded four ships: three large dhows for carrying gifts and one warship with soldiers to protect against pirate attacks.
• About half of the soldiers were skilled African archers and spear throwers.

Arrival in Calicut:

• Using the monsoon winds, the ships headed south and reached the port of Calicut, where they were welcomed with drums, trumpets, horns, and flags.
• In the harbor, there were 13 Chinese junks, much larger than the dhows Ibn Battuta had sailed on. He admired these huge ships, which had luxury accommodations.
• He was supposed to continue to China on three of these large ships.

Storm and Shipwreck:

• Before boarding, a violent storm hit. Due to the shallow harbor, the captains of the junks ordered the ships to wait out the storm in deeper water.
• Ibn Battuta helplessly watched from the beach as two ships were pushed ashore, broke apart, and sank.
• Some crew members from one junk were saved, but no one survived from the other ship, which Ibn Battuta was supposed to be on.

Feeling of Failure:

• Now alone and ashamed, Ibn Battuta felt like a failure as the leader of the trip to China for the Sultan of Delhi.
• But he was also grateful to be alive.

Decision to Leave India:

• Unsure of where to go, Ibn Battuta wanted to return to the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad Tughluq, but feared execution for his failed trip.
• He decided it was safer to seek employment and protection from another Muslim sultan in southern India.

Joining a Battle:

• To gain favor with the new sultan, Ibn Battuta joined in a day-long battle.
• When the next battle seemed lost, he managed to escape and returned to Calicut for the fifth time.

Independent Journey to China:

• Deciding to continue to China on his own, Ibn Battuta chose a longer route.
• He planned to briefly visit the Maldive Islands, then travel to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) to pilgrimage at the sacred Adam’s Peak, before finally heading to China.

Rehla as a source of Indian history

• Rehla is an important historical document that provides insight into the Delhi Sultanate during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• The text sheds light on the social and political conditions of that time.

Ibn Batutah's Stay in Delhi:

• Ibn Batutah, a famous traveler and scholar, lived in Delhi for eight years.
• During his stay, he was supported by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who appointed him as a Qazi(judge).

Batuta's Mission to China:

• When Ibn Batutah left Delhi in 1342 to travel to China, Muhammad bin Tughlaq appointed him as the head of a diplomatic mission to the Chinese Emperor.

Personal nature of Md. Bin Tughlaq

• Ibn Battuta noted that Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had a peculiar habit of accepting gifts from his visitors and, in return, offering gifts of far greater value.
• The Sultan was known to be harsh and punishing towards both non-Muslims and Muslims in his empire, often penalizing individuals for minor offenses.
• Battuta's accounts portray Muhammad Bin Tughlaq as an eccentric ruler with a quick temper and a tendency towards severity.

Espionage and communication system

• Espionage and Communication: The Tughlaq Empire had a well-organized administrative structure that included strong espionage and communication systems.
• Postal System: The postal system utilized both horse and human runners to deliver messages and goods.
• Horse Couriers: Horse couriers were stationed every four miles to ensure swift delivery over long distances.
• Foot Couriers: Foot couriers were stationed every mile for more immediate delivery needs.
• Merchant Services: The system enabled merchants to send information, remit credit, and dispatch goods quickly across vast distances, facilitating trade and commerce.

Policies and administrative measures of Md. Bin Tughluq

• Transfer of Capital: Md. Bin Tughlaq moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.
• Famine Impact: A severe famine from 1335 AD lasted about seven years, causing many deaths near Delhi while the Sultan was focused on quelling rebellions.
• Relief Measures: During the famine in Doab, relief measures were implemented.
• Delhi's Grandeur: Ibn Battuta described the magnificent city of Delhi after Tughlaq forcibly relocated its residents to Daulatabad.
• Token Currency: Token coins were not mentioned by Ibn Battuta, indicating that the episode of token currency was quickly forgotten after being discontinued in 1333.

Insights into the social and economic life

• Slavery and Slave Market: Ibn Battuta observed the presence of slaves and the active slave market during the Tughluq period.
• Caste System: He noted the intricacies of the caste system and its impact on social dynamics.
• Social Customs: His accounts shed light on various social customs practiced during this era.
• Art and Crafts: Ibn Battuta provided insights into the art and crafts prevalent in the Tughluq Sultanate.
• Trade, especially Horse Imports: He highlighted the importance of trade, particularly the import of horses, in the economic landscape.
• Practice of Sati: His observations included the practice of Sati, where widows were self-immolated.
• Currency System: Ibn Battuta discussed the currency system in place during the Tughluq period.
• Ship Manufacture: He noted the manufacture of ships and its significance in trade and transportation.

Marriage Practices:

Muslim men were permitted to have up to four wives.
Ibn Battuta shared his personal experiences with marriage:

• He married his first wife while traveling through North Africa.
• In Damascus, he married again and had a son whom he never met.
• In India, he married again and had a daughter.
• In the Maldive Islands, he had several wives, divorced them, and had a child with at least one of them.

He noted the ease of marrying in the Maldive Islands due to small dowries and the attractions of society. Temporary marriages were common among visiting sailors.

Views on Adultery:

• Adultery was considered a serious crime in Islamic countries, often punishable by death, especially for women.
• Men had legal means to engage in sexual relationships with multiple women, such as marrying up to four women and keeping slave women as concubines.
• As a judge, Ibn Battuta advocated for the strict enforcement of laws against adultery.

Observations on Eunuchs:

• Eunuchs were common in powerful empires, often employed in government positions.
• Ibn Battuta described eunuchs serving amirs,shaikhs, and sultans in Egypt,India, and China.
• They performed various roles, including protecting the harem, managing the Prophet Muhammad’s mosque in Medina, and serving as administrators in China.

Praise for Celibacy and Pious Women:

• Ibn Battuta commended holy men and Turkish youths who chose a celibate life.
• He also praised women for their piety, including a scholar of the Quran, a sultan’s wife who built wells along the pilgrimage route to Mecca, and others like Muhammad Tughluq’s mother for their charity.

Relations between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims

Strict Sunni Beliefs and Views on Shia Islam:

• Ibn Battuta, a devout Sunni Muslim, expressed criticism of Shia beliefs in his writings.
• He avoided interactions with Shi'i scholars and deliberately stayed away from predominantly Shi'i towns.

Relations Between Muslims and Hindus in India:

• Conflicts involving Ibn Battuta's group and attackers he identified as Hindu shed light on the tensions between Muslims and Hindus during that period.
• The relationship between Muhammad Tughluq and the local Hindu population was marked by open hostility and violent conflict.

Culture Shock and Observations in Different Regions:

• Ibn Battuta often experienced culture shock in areas where local customs of recently converted peoples clashed with his orthodox Muslim upbringing.
• He was surprised by the freedom and respect for women among the Turks and Mongols, noting instances where a man and woman in a bazaar might appear as servant and master, when in fact they were husband and wife.
• Additionally, he found the dress customs in some regions to be overly revealing.

Meal and other edible taken in India:

Food Descriptions from a Hunting Trip with Sultan Muhammad Tughluq:

During a hunting trip with Sultan Muhammad Tughluq, various types of food were described, including:

• Flesh of sheep
• Fattened fowls
• Cranes

Royal meals included:

• Bread
• Large slabs of meat
• Round dough cakes stuffed with sweet almond paste and honey, cooked in ghee
• Meat cooked with ghee, onions, and green ginger
• Sambusak(similar to modern samosas)
• Rice cooked in ghee with chickens on top
• Sweetcakes and sweetmeats (pastries) for dessert

Fruits and other food items mentioned:

• Mango
• Pickled green ginger and peppers
• Jack-fruit described as the best fruit in India
• Tandu(fruit of the ebony tree)
• Sweet oranges
• Wheat
• Chickpeas and lentils
• Rice sown three times a year
• Sesame and sugar cane also sown

Jack-fruit was described with great admiration, being called the “Loveliest of all fruits in Hindustan.”
Mango also piqued interest, with mango and ginger pickle noted as common meal accompaniments.
Indians were observed to eat millet most often, along with peas and mung beans cooked with rice and ghee for breakfast.
Animals were fed barley,chickpeas,leaves as fodder, and even ghee.

Pan and betel nut

• Pan and betel nut were supplied to the imperial capital, reportedly coming from Chanderi, near Gwalior.

Betel Plant:

• The betel plant, resembling a grape plant, is cultivated for its leaves.

Pre-Meal and Post-Meal Beverages:

• Before meals, people consumed sherbet made from sugared water, and after meals, they drank barley water.

Betel Leaf and Areca Nut:

• Betel leaf and areca nut, known for their mild narcotic effects, were commonly consumed.

Pulses and Chicken Dishes:

• Dishes included various pulses and chicken cooked in ghee.

Rasoi:

• A popular dish among the Muslim community in Kerala, rasoi is made of rice, lamb, grated coconut, and onion.

Separation of Meals:

• Ibn Battuta noted that Muslim women in India ate separately from men, similar to practices in other Muslim countries he visited.

Description of Coconut Trees:

• Coconut trees, resembling date palms, have trunks that look like a man's head.
• The interior of the coconut resembles a brain, and its fiber looks like human hair.
• The fiber is used to make ropes, which are utilized for pulling ships.

Describes Indian cities

• City Life: Delhi and Daulatabad were described by Ibn Battuta as vast, populous cities, with Delhi being the largest in India. The streets were crowded, and the markets were vibrant, filled with a wide variety of goods.
• Bazaars: The bazaars served not only as economic centers but also as social and cultural hubs. Most bazaars featured a mosque and a temple, and some even had designated spaces for public performances by dancers, musicians, and singers.
• Wealth Generation: Towns derived much of their wealth by appropriating surplus from surrounding villages, thanks to the fertile soil that allowed farmers to grow two crops a year.
• Trade and Commerce: The subcontinent was well integrated into inter-Asian trade networks, with Indian goods in high demand in West Asia and Southeast Asia. Indian textiles, especially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade, and satin, were particularly sought after, bringing substantial profits to artisans and merchants.

Agriculture:

Fertile Soil and Crop Diversity in the Region

• Ibn Battuta observed that the soil in the region was highly fertile, allowing for the cultivation of two crops each season: one in the Rabi season and another in the Kharif season.
• He noted the following crop patterns:
• East: Rice and sugarcane were the predominant crops.
• North: Wheat and oilseeds were commonly grown.
• Other Crops: Additional crops included cotton, barley, and sesame.

Village industry:

Ibn Batutah writes about the life-style of nobility, various customs and rituals prevailing at the court and important monuments, scholar and saints of the city of Delhi.
Ibn Battuta studied and wrote about the history of famous Qutb complex, and also about Quwat al-Islam Mosque and about the famous Qutb Minar.
His account also discusses jogis, who would perform magic tricks on the streets.

During his travel to south:

• He mentions the magnificent fort of Deogiri, renamed Daulatabad by Tughlaq, with its massive walls stretching three miles.
• He makes a mention of the Marathas living in the region and that the food of Marathas consists of rice, green vegetables and oil of sesame…they carefully wash their food.
• Battuta also travelled to South India and stayed in Calicut, where he describes
  • way of living of South Indian people,
  • dominance of Muslims in international trade with India,
• Ibn Battuta’s sea voyages and references to shipping reveal that the Muslims completely dominated the maritime activity of the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Chinese waters.
• Also it is seen that though the Christian traders were subject to certain restrictions, most of the economic negotiations were transacted on the basis of equality and mutual respect.
• involvement of large Chinese junkers in trade with China.

Why was travelling more insecure in the medieval period according to Ibn Battuta?

• Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times. In fact he preferred travelling in a caravan along with companions, but this did not deter highway robbers.
• While travelling from Multan to Delhi, his caravan was attacked and many of his fellow travellers lost their lives; those travellers, who survived, including Ibn Battuta, were severely wounded.
• He suffered from home sick and in many places he was not welcomed by the people.

Evidence of slavery in Ibn Battuta’s account 

Slave Market:

• According to Ibn Battuta, slaves (both male and female) were openly sold in markets like any other goods and were frequently exchanged as gifts.
• Ibn Battuta himself bought several slaves during his travels, including two Greek female slaves with whom he fathered children.
• In Chittagong, Ibn Battuta noted that everything, including slaves, was cheap. He purchased "an extremely beautiful" girl, while a friend bought a young boy for just a couple of gold dinars.
• The prices of slaves, especially female slaves needed for domestic work, were very low. Most families that could afford it kept at least one or two slaves.

Giving Slaves as Gifts:

• When Ibn Battuta arrived in Sind, he bought horses, camels, and slaves (including female slaves) as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Ibn Battuta recorded that the Sultan of Delhi once rewarded a preacher named Nasiruddin with a hundred thousand tankas (coins) and two hundred slaves (both male and female) for his sermon.
• According to Ibn Battuta, Chinese emissaries had previously arrived in Delhi with 100 slaves and cartloads of fine clothing, brocade, musk, and swords as gifts for Muhammad Tughluq. In return, Muhammad Tughluq felt obliged to offer an even more impressive array of gifts, including 200 Hindi slaves, songstresses, and dancers.

On Sexual Relations with Female Slaves:

• Ibn Battuta’s practice of having sexual relations with female slaves was considered legal under the medieval Islamic laws he followed.
• He fathered children with at least two of his slaves. One young Greek slave woman gave birth to a daughter who died in India, while another slave died when his ship sank in India on its way to China.

Roles of Slaves:

• Most female slaves were women captured during raids and expeditions. Some female slaves in the Sultan's court were skilled in music and dance, while others were employed for domestic chores. Ibn Battuta enjoyed their performances at the wedding of the Sultan's sister.
• Ibn Battuta found the services of male slaves essential for carrying wealthy women and men on palanquins.
• Female slaves were also employed by the Sultan to monitor his nobles and were primarily used for domestic labor.

On Prostitution Involving Slave Girls:

• While Ibn Battuta approved of concubinage (having sexual relations with his female slaves), he criticized prostitution and viewed it as immoral.
• He described how slave girls were forced into prostitution, with each girl required to pay a regular due to her master.

On Runaway Slaves:

• Although the specific punishment for runaway slaves is not detailed, Ibn Battuta experienced this at least twice when his slave escaped and was later punished.

Criticism of Rehla 

Ibn Battuta’s Account of His Journeys:

• After coming back home from his travels in 1354, Ibn Battuta, encouraged by the ruler of Morocco, narrated his experiences to a scholar named Ibn Juzayy. This account is the only record of Ibn Battuta’s adventures.
• There is no evidence that Ibn Battuta took notes during his twenty-nine years of travel. When he dictated his experiences, he relied on memory and earlier travelers’ manuscripts.
• Scholars doubt that Ibn Battuta visited all the places he described. To give a thorough description of the Muslim world, he likely depended on hearsay and the accounts of earlier travelers.
• Being a foreigner, Ibn Battuta couldn’t communicate in the local languages, which hindered his ability to gather information directly from ordinary people.
• There are chronological mistakes in his accounts, and at times he confuses facts with hearsay, which affects the credibility of his narratives.
• Despite these issues, even if the Rehla is not entirely based on Ibn Battuta’s personal observations and some details are incorrect, his overall depiction is a valuable source for understanding the political history, as well as the social and economic life of India.