The Mangol threat to India during Sultanate period | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

India's Northern Defenses and Historical Invasions:

• India's northern and north-western borders were protected by mountain ranges, specifically the Himalayas and their extensions.
• However, these mountain barriers were not impenetrable. The Khyber and Bolan passes served as traditional gateways for invasions into India.
• Afghanistan and its surrounding regions were crucial for any potential invasion of India, acting as a staging ground.
• The invasions by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids into northern India often began with attacks on Afghanistan.

Khyber and Bolan Pass

For the Delhi Sultans, control over the Kabul-Ghazni-Qandahar line, bordered by the Hindukush mountains, was crucial for two main reasons:

• Stabilizing the 'scientific frontier.'
• Connecting India with the major silk route that passed from China through Central Asia and Persia.

However, the Mongol invasions forced the Delhi Sultans to retreat to the Chenab River, while the cis-Sutlej region became a hotspot of conflict.

• As a result, the Indus River became more of a cultural boundary for India, and the practical line of control was limited to the area west of the Indus.
• A viable defense line in the northwest could now be established either by the Indus River or by the Koh-i-Jud (Salt Ranges), which were on this side of the Indus.

Over time, the Mongols breached these defensive lines and advanced as far as the Beas River, posing a serious threat to the Delhi Sultanate.

• After the Ghurian conquest, it was hoped that Ghur and Ghazni would serve as effective shields against future invasions of India.
• However, the separation of India from Ghur and Ghazni, along with the subsequent conquest of these areas by Khwarizm Shah and later the Mongols, significantly changed the strategic landscape.

Aloofness

Iltutmish and the Mongol Threat:

• Mongol Threat (A.D. 1221): Iltutmish faced the Mongol threat as early as A.D. 1221 when Chengiz Khan, after destroying the Khwarizmi empire, reached the Indian frontiers.
• Chengiz Khan's Campaign: In 1221, Chengiz Khan lingered around the Indus for three months after defeating the Khwarizmi prince Jalaluddin Mangbarani, who had fled into India. Jalaluddin, after crossing the Indus, formed an alliance with the Khokhars to strengthen his position.
• Mongol Pursuit: The Mongol commander Bala pursued Jalaluddin throughout the Punjab region, attacking towns like Bhera and Multan, and even sacking the outskirts of Lahore.
• Jalaluddin's Request for Help: Jalaluddin sought help or asylum from Iltutmish, but was turned down, with Iltutmish citing the unsuitable climate.
• Iltutmish's Expedition: Minhaj Siraj recorded that Iltutmish led an expedition against Mangbarani, but the latter avoided confrontation and eventually left India in A.D. 1224.
• Factors for Iltutmish's Policy: Ata-Malik Juvayni suggested that Iltutmish's policy of 'aloofness' was due to the threat posed by Mangbarani and the weaknesses of the Sultanate.
• Chengiz Khan's Envoy: Chengiz Khan sent envoys to Iltutmish, indicating his decision to abandon plans of invading Hindustan and returning to China.
• Non-Aggression Understanding: An understanding of non-aggression between Iltutmish and Chengiz Khan may have been reached, as Iltutmish did not adopt an expansionist policy in the north-west during Chengiz Khan's lifetime.
• Mongol Invasion Plans: After Chengiz Khan's death in A.D. 1227, the Mongols were initially preoccupied with internal affairs and the conquest of Khurasan and Iran. However, in 1234, Oktai, Chengiz Khan's successor, planned to invade Hind and Kashmir.
• Iltutmish's Response: Iltutmish advanced to Banyan in the Salt Ranges to counter this threat, but fell ill and returned to the capital, where he died shortly after.
• Post-Iltutmish Struggles: After Iltutmish's death, Wafa Malik, the former governor of Ghazni ousted by the Mongols, captured the Koh-i-Jud or Salt Ranges region. This led to Mongol attacks, and the Mongols eventually brought the Koh-i-Jud under their control.
• Qarlugh Dynasty and Mongol Struggles: A prolonged struggle ensued between Wafa Malik (Qarlugh Dynasty) and the Mongols for control over Koh-i-Jud and Multan, with the sultans of Delhi intervening when possible.
• Qarlughs Quitting India: By 1246, the Qarlughs had to leave India, but by then, the Koh-i-Jud had become a Mongol stronghold and a base for further attacks on India.

Appeasement

Shift from Iltutmish’s policy of ‘aloofness’ to ‘appeasement’:

• The shift from Iltutmish's policy of 'aloofness' to 'appeasement' was driven by the expansion of the sultanate's frontier to Lahore and Multan. This expansion brought the sultanate directly into contact with Mongol incursions, eliminating the buffer state that had previously protected it.
• Raziya's response to Hasan Qarlugh's anti-Mongol alliance proposal reflected her policy of appeasement.
• This policy of non-aggression was influenced by several factors:
• The partitioning of Chengiz Khan's empire among his sons weakened the Mongols' power.
• The Mongols were preoccupied with conflicts in West Asia.

Mongol Annexation of India (1240-66):

• During this period, the Mongols shifted their focus to the annexation of India, marking the end of the mutual 'non-aggression pact' with Delhi.
• The change in Central Asia's situation prompted this shift. The Mongol Khan of Transoxiana, facing difficulties against the Persian Khanate, sought new opportunities in India.

Invasion of Lahore (1241):

• In 1241, the Mongols, led by Tair Bahadur, invaded Lahore and destroyed the city.
• The Turkish governor was unprepared for a siege, and many inhabitants, being merchants with ties to Mongol territories, were unwilling to assist him due to fears of Mongol reprisals.
• With no hope of aid from Delhi, where confusion reigned after Raziya's death, the governor abandoned the city.

Aftermath of the Invasion:

• After capturing Lahore, the Mongols faced strong resistance from the citizens, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides.
• In retaliation, the Mongols killed or enslaved the city's inhabitants and devastated Lahore.
• The Mongols retreated following the death of their Qa-an, Ogtai.

Reoccupation and Ruin of Lahore:

• Although Lahore was reoccupied by Delhi, it remained in a ruined state for the next twenty years, suffering further sackings by the Mongols and their Khokhar allies.

Further Invasions (A.D. 1245-46):

• Following the initial invasion, the Mongols made two successive invasions in A.D. 1245-46.

Balban’s Ambitions:

• Balban aimed to adopt a bold policy to clear the area up to the Koh-i-Jud from the Mongols and their Khokhar allies.
• However, factionalism within the Turkish nobility hindered these efforts.

Frontier Commanders’ Autonomy:

• The frontier commanders in Multan and Sindh were largely left to their own devices in dealing with the Mongols.
• Some commanders even made agreements with the Mongols, establishing themselves as independent rulers under Mongol overlordship.

Balban’s Efforts (A.D. 1244-66):

• Despite Balban's best efforts, the Sultanate frontier during this period remained at the Beas River.

Mongol Focus on Other Conquests:

• The Mongols were primarily focused on conquering China and territories in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt.
• They left the plundering of India to local commanders, allowing the sultans of Delhi to avoid the full force of Mongol power.

Continuation of Appeasement Policy:

• Despite the challenges, the policy of appeasement continued for some time.
• In A.D. 1260, an envoy from Halaku to Delhi was well received, and this diplomatic gesture was reciprocated by Halaku.

Balban’s Measures Against Mongol Depredations:

• To limit Mongol depredations, Balban adopted both military and diplomatic measures.
• As naib, he sent an envoy to Halaku, the Mongol Il-Khan of Iran, who was a significant successor of Chingez Khan.

Reception of Mongol Envoys:

• Halaku sent a return embassy in 1260, which was grandly received by Balban.
• Halaku reportedly ordered his officers not to invade India, although this assurance should be viewed with caution as Halaku was focused on conquests in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt.

Complex Diplomatic Situation:

• During this time, Balban also received an envoy from Barka Khan, a powerful Mongol leader with enmity towards Halaku.
• In this complex situation, Halaku claimed overlordship over Sindh and the Koh-i-Jud areas, implying that the Sultans of Delhi would not disturb Mongol interests in these regions.

Resistance

Balban's Defense Strategy Against the Mongols:

• During Balban's reign (1266), the relationship between the Mongols and the Delhi Sultanate soured after the death of Halaku.
• Balban focused on defending Delhi from Mongol invasions, with his cousin Sher Khan acting as a buffer in the north.
• When suggested to expand into Malwa and Gujarat, Balban prioritized defending the kingdom over foreign conquests.
• Initially, Balban adopted an aggressive stance against the Mongols, clearing roads and launching military campaigns to weaken their influence.
• He reinforced forts at Bhatinda, Sunam, and Samana to bolster defenses beyond the Beas River.
• In 1270, Balban ordered the reconstruction of Lahore and took measures to strengthen the city and its defenses.
• After suspecting Sher Khan of wanting to become independent, Balban had him poisoned and put his son,Prince Muhammad, in charge of frontier defenses.
• Prince Muhammad successfully defended against Mongol attacks, with Multan and Lahore as key defensive points.
• Despite heavy pressure from Mongol forces, Balban managed to secure Multan and Uchh.
• Prince Muhammad led annual expeditions against the Mongols until his death in 1285, which was a significant loss for Balban.
• The last major Mongol attack during Balban's time was in 1288, but they retreated upon hearing of imperial forces' arrival.
• Until 1290, the Mongols controlled western Punjab, with the Beas River as the effective frontier, constantly threatening Multan and Sindh but not launching serious offensives towards Delhi.
• This period required the Sultanate of Delhi to maintain vigilance and military readiness to survive against Mongol threats.

Jalaluddin Khalji

Last Mongol Invasion of India (1292):

• A Mongol army led by Abdullah, a grandson of Halaku, invaded India.
• Jalaluddin Khalji, newly crowned Sultan, mobilized a large force to confront the Mongols.
• After some minor clashes, the Mongols agreed to withdraw without a major battle.

Agreement and Settlement:

• Jalaluddin Khalji and Abdullah reached some form of agreement.
• During a meeting, Abdullah and another Mongol leader,Ulaghu (also a grandson of Halaku), converted to Islam along with 4,000 followers.
• They were allowed to settle near Delhi with their families, and Ulaghu married one of Jalaluddin's daughters.
• These Mongols and a group of 5,000 who had entered India in 1279 became known as “Nau (Neo) Muslims.”

Tacit Agreement:

• The friendly relations indicated a tacit agreement where the Mongols were allowed to keep West Punjab.

Changes in Mongol Politics:

• Shifts in Mongol internal politics, especially with the rise of the Ogtai-Chaghtai branch,increased the threat to Delhi.
• Dawa Khan, a Mongol chief, conflicted with the Mongol Qa-an of Iran,conquering Afghanistan and extending his control to the river Ravi.

Alauddin Khilji

The Mongols posed a significant threat to Delhi during the reign of Alauddin Khilji. Their invasions highlighted the ongoing struggle for power and control in the region.

• In 1297-98, a Mongol army led by Dawa Khan crossed the Beas and Sutlej rivers, advancing towards Delhi.
• In response, Alauddin Khilji dispatched a large army under Ulugh Khan, who decisively defeated the Mongols near Jullundhar. This victory marked a significant achievement for the Delhi Sultanate against the Mongols.
• The following year, when the Mongols captured Siwistan in lower Sindh, Zafar Khan, another trusted commander of Alauddin, successfully repelled them.
• These victories led Alauddin to underestimate the Mongol threat. In 1299, the Mongols, now under Qutlugh Khan (Dawa Khan's son), attempted to invade and conquer Delhi for the first time.
• Unlike previous raids, the Mongols aimed to establish control over Delhi rather than merely plundering.
• As the Mongols approached, Alauddin quickly assembled his forces and positioned them outside Siri, while the Mongols fortified themselves at Killi, six miles north of Delhi.
• The influx of refugees into Delhi created overcrowding and strained resources, leading to a scarcity of provisions.
• Alaul Mulk, the kotwal of Delhi, advised a cautious approach, but Alauddin preferred a show of strength. He ordered his troops to maintain their lines and avoid unauthorized attacks.
• Despite Alauddin's orders, Zafar Khan, eager for combat, engaged the Mongols. Following their usual tactic, the Mongols feigned retreat, luring Zafar Khan into a trap.
• Zafar Khan and his men fought valiantly but were ultimately surrounded and killed. Despite this setback, Qutlugh Khan realized the difficulty of breaking Alauddin's lines and retreated after two days of skirmishes.
• After this initial attack, Delhi became a frequent target for Mongol invasions.
• In 1303, the Mongols, led by Targhi, advanced on Delhi again, taking advantage of Alauddin's absence during his campaign in Chittor.
• The Mongols caused significant destruction during this siege, preventing Alauddin from re-entering the city.
• Alauddin, with limited forces and faced with a shortage of troops due to other campaigns, took a defensive position near the Jamuna River and the old city of Delhi.
• He fortified his camp, making it resemble a wooden fort, deterring the Mongols from attacking.
• After two months of besieging Delhi without success, the Mongols retreated.
• In 1305, the Mongols made a final attempt to conquer Hindustan, crossing the Indus and advancing rapidly through Punjab.
• Alauddin, now with a stronger army, sent Malik Nayak to confront the Mongols.
• Malik Nayak achieved a decisive victory near Amroha, effectively ending the Mongol threat in India and dispelling the myth of their invincibility.

Constant Mongol attacks pressed Alauddin awoke from his sleep of neglect and to think of a permanent solution.

Alauddin Khilji's Defense Against the Mongols:

• A protecting wall around Delhi was built for the first time.
• All the old forts on the route of the Mongols were repaired.
• Strong military contingents were posted at Samana and Dipalpur.
• Alauddin Khilji reorganized the internal administration and recruited a large army.
• The Mongols were repulsed in 1306 and 1308.
• According to Barani, the Mongols were defeated whenever they attacked Delhi or nearby regions.
• The death of Dawa Khan in 1306 and subsequent civil war in the Mongol Khanate weakened the Mongols significantly.
• The areas devastated by the Mongols were gradually reclaimed for agriculture.
• Lahore and Dipalpur became strong barriers against the Mongols.
• Tughlaq Shah, the area commander, launched successful attacks on Mongol-held territories in West Punjab up to the river Indus.
• The Mongols were deterred from crossing the river Indus.
• Alauddin not only defended Delhi and the doab but also pushed back the northwest frontier of India from the river Beas and Lahore to the river Indus.
• Despite these achievements, the threat to India remained as long as the Mongols dominated Afghanistan and nearby areas.
• After Alauddin's death, the Mongol threat revived.
• In 1320, Dalucha Khan invaded the Kashmir valley, causing widespread devastation.
• All men were killed, and women and children were sold into slavery.
• Houses were burnt down.
• Fortunately, the Mongol invaders perished in a snow blizzard while retreating from Kashmir eight months later.

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq

Shortly after Ghiyasuddin Tughluq ascended to the throne in 1320, two Mongol armies reached Sunam and Samana, advancing as far as Meerut.

• They were defeated with heavy casualties.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Last Significant Mongol Invasion (1326-27):

• Led by Tarmashirin during the reign of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq.

Counteraction by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq:

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq marched against Tarmashirin, pushing him back across the Indus River, which became the frontier with the Mongols.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Khurasan Expedition:

• Shortly after becoming Sultan, Muhammad bin Tughlaq recruited a massive army of 375,000 men for the Khurasan expedition.
• Objective: Conquer Kabul,Ghazni, and surrounding areas to secure the north-west frontier.

Strategic Insight:

• Despite the failure of the Khurasan expedition, Tughlaq demonstrated strategic insight regarding the north-west frontier.
• His neglect of this region contributed to future invasions, such as Timur's in 1399.

Duration of Mongol Threat:

• The Mongol threat to India persisted for nearly 100 years, peaking during the reign of Alauddin Khalji.

Mongol Incursions and Territory Loss:

• The incursions resulted in the loss of western Punjab beyond Lahore to the Mongols during the late 13th century.
• This created a significant threat to Delhi and the doab region, similar to the time of the Ghaznavids.

Delhi Sultans vs. Rajput Rulers:

• Unlike the Rajput rulers, the Delhi Sultans organized their resources effectively and restructured their economy to address the Mongol threat.
• However, they failed to establish a defence line based on Afghanistan to prevent future incursions.

Mughals and Defence Line:

• The task of building a viable defence line was later undertaken by the Mughals.

Delhi Sultanate's Strength:

• Despite challenges, the Delhi Sultans managed to tackle the Mongol problem and keep their kingdom intact, demonstrating the strength of the Sultanate.

Mongol Destruction and Cultural Transformation:

• The Mongol destruction in Central and West Asia led to a large-scale migration of scholars, mystics, artisans, and others to Delhi.
• This migration transformed Delhi into a major center of Islamic culture.