Rise of Landless Agrarian Labourers | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction 

• When the British took control of India, they made many changes to how the economy, politics, and society worked. In the 1750s, the Mughal Empire was weakening, and new states were forming. The British came to India to trade but ended up ruling large parts of the country and greatly affecting its economy, politics, and society.

Economic Changes:

• The British policies were mainly designed to benefit themselves. This led to the commercialization of agriculture and the decline of traditional Indian industries.
• They exploited India’s resources, disrupting the economy and negatively impacting local industries.

Political Changes:

• The British passed a series of Acts that had both positive and negative impacts.
• The most significant outcome was the establishment of British authority over the Indian subcontinent.
• Acts such as the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt’s India Act of 1784, and various Charter Acts played a role in the constitutional development of India.
• They also made important changes to the administration, including revenue management, civil services, police, army, and judicial services.

Social Changes:

• The British influenced Indian society through their policies on education, language, and culture.
• While some positive changes were welcomed by the Indian population, their oppressive measures led to revolts and rebellions.
• The British presence in India brought about significant transformations in society, with both beneficial and harmful effects.

How did British rule affect the Indian Villages: Ruling the Countryside

• Under British rule, the East India Company initially saw itself mainly as a trading organization, even after becoming the Diwan of Bengal.
• The Company’s aggressive revenue collection practices led to a severe crisis in the Bengali economy.
• This culminated in the devastating famine of 1770, which resulted in the deaths of 10 million people, wiping out nearly one-third of the region’s population.
• Recognizing the need for change, many Company officials began to advocate for increased investment in agricultural lands and the improvement of farming practices.
• Consequently, several land-revenue systems, such as Zamindari, Mahalwari, and Ryotwari, were introduced in an effort to restore stability and prosperity to the Indian countryside.
• These efforts aimed to encourage investment in the land and agricultural improvements, ultimately shaping the economic landscape of rural India during British rule.

Permanent Settlement (Zamindari)

• The Permanant Settlement, also known as Zamindari, was introduced in 1793 by the East India Company during the tenure of Governor-General Cornwallis.
• Under this system,rajas and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars, responsible for collecting rent from peasants and paying a fixed revenue to the Company. This revenue was set at a fixed rate, not subject to future increases.
• The Permanent Settlement faced challenges as Company officials observed that zamindars were not investing in land improvement.
• The fixed revenue was often too high, leading to difficulties for many zamindars in making payments. Those who failed to pay would lose their zamindari status, resulting in numerous zamindaris being auctioned off by the Company.
• In the 19th century, there was some market improvement. However, the Company did not benefit from this as they could not increase the fixed revenue demand. Meanwhile, cultivators found the Permanent Settlement system to be highly oppressive.

Mahalwari Settlement

Introduction of Mahalwari Settlement:

• The Mahalwari settlement was created to meet the financial needs of the British East India Company, which required more funds than what the fixed revenues of the zamindari system could provide.

Development by Holt Mackenzie:

• In 1822, Holt Mackenzie, a British official, developed the Mahalwari system, focusing on the North-Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, now primarily in Uttar Pradesh, India.

Role of the Village:

• Mackenzie emphasized the village's importance in the social structure. Collectors were sent to villages to assess land, measure fields, and document customs and rights of various groups.

Revenue Assessment:

• The revenue owed by each plot of land was estimated based on these assessments. The total revenue for all plots determined the amount owed by the village or mahal.

Flexibility in Revenue Demands:

• Unlike the zamindari system, the revenue demands in the Mahalwari system were subject to revisions over time, providing more flexibility.

Shift in Responsibility:

• In the Mahalwari system, the responsibility of collecting revenue and making payments to the Company shifted from the zamindars to the village headmen.

Objective of the Mahalwari Settlement:

• The Mahalwari settlement aimed to offer a more flexible and effective method of generating revenue for the British East India Company while recognizing the village's significance in the region's social structure.

Introduction of Ryotwari/Munro System:

• Crisis in the zamindari system led to the introduction of the ryotwari or Munro system in the south.
• Cultivators (ryots) were directly settled with, as there were no traditional zamindars in the south.
• Fields were surveyed carefully and separately before revenue assessment.

Survey and Revenue Assessment:

• Fields were meticulously surveyed to determine the revenue owed by each ryot.
• Revenue assessments were made based on these individual surveys, ensuring fairness and accuracy in the system.

Rise of Landless Agrarian Labourers

Background Information:

• In India, rising rates of illiteracy,poverty, and seasonal unemployment have contributed to an increase in landlessness. This study aims to explore the challenges faced by landless laborers, including issues related to a growing population and wage concerns in agriculture.
• The research will also examine the customary rights of laborers in India and suggest potential solutions to address the problem of landless laborers in the present-day context.

Discussion on Landless Labourers:

• Landless laborers are individuals who do not own the land they work on and are compelled to work on other people's land for low wages.
• The number of landless laborers is increasing due to various political and environmental issues affecting India.
• Climate change and frequent natural disasters have contributed to the rising number of landless laborers.
• Low literacy rates in rural areas and increasing unemployment are driving factors behind the growth of landlessness.
• The lack of alternative employment opportunities and limited policies for agricultural development in many rural areas have forced low to mid-level laborers to become landless.
• This situation exacerbates the problem of landless laborers in modern India.

Issues of Landless Labour in India:

• The widespread use of machinery in agriculture has led to a reduction in available agricultural land, creating a void for landowners.
• The disorganized approach of rural farmers, who often rely on traditional farming methods, has contributed to a significant increase in landlessness among laborers.
• Poverty is a critical factor driving landlessness in rural areas. Many rural regions in India are underdeveloped, leading to chaos and struggles for illiterate and impoverished farmers.
• The high maintenance costs and business losses associated with agricultural lands further contribute to landlessness among laborers.

Reasons for the Rising Population of Landless Labourers in India

Agricultural Sector Challenges in India:

• The agricultural sector in India is facing problems of underemployment and unemployment in rural areas.
• This situation has led to a significant increase in the population of landless laborers.
• Many agricultural laborers are trapped in debt because they do not own land and rely on working for others.
• This cycle of debt has worsened the poverty levels of these laborers and increased their seasonal unemployment.
• Familial issues among farm laborers, particularly related to the cultivation of the same land over the years, have also added to these challenges.

A Brief Overview of Wage-Earning and No-wage Earners in Agriculture

• In India, wages tend to be low because the productivity of laborers in the agricultural sector is limited.
• The challenging marginal productivity in agriculture has negatively affected the wage-earning potential for laborers in recent times.
• Additionally, the increased use of weedicides and machinery on agricultural lands has posed challenges for laborers, making it harder for them to adapt and contributing to the low wage-earning levels in India.

Customary Rights of Landless Labourers

• Landless laborers in India have experienced different consumer rights throughout various periods in the country.
• During the feudal era, laborers were subject to taxation systems and debt trap rights under the Ryotwari System.
• Later, in British India, the Forest Act was established to support landless farmers.
• In contemporary times, landless laborers are recognized under the Resettlement and Rehabilitation Act 2013 as part of their customary rights.

Strategies for Improving the Situation of Landless Laborers in India

• Provide landless laborers with farm tools to enhance their productivity.
• Promote rural development to create better living and working conditions.
• Improve the literacy rate among landless laborers to empower them with knowledge and skills.

Conclusion

• British rule in India brought significant changes in the economic,political, and social aspects of the country.
• The introduction of various land-revenue systems,commercialization of agriculture, and the rise of landless agrarian laborers led to the decline of traditional Indian industries and the oppression of Indian peasants.
• Despite some positive changes brought about by the British, the negative consequences heavily impacted India’s rural economy, leading to widespread poverty,famine, and indebtedness.
• To improve the current circumstances of landless laborers, it is crucial to implement government interventions, promote rural development, and enhance literacy rates among the affected populations.