Economy: Rise of Urban Economy and Non-Agricultural Production | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The new Turkish government released social forces that helped create a different economic organization compared to the past.
• This new organization led to the expansion of towns and significant changes in agrarian relationships(the way people interact with land and farming).

Rise of Urban economy and Non-agricultural production

Increase in Coin Hoards and Emergence of New Towns Post A.D. 1200:

• After A.D. 1200, there was a noticeable increase in the number of coin hoards, indicating a rise in stored wealth or economic activity.
• This period also saw the emergence of a large number of new towns, suggesting significant urban development and population growth.

The urban economy on the eve of the Ghorid conquest

Historical Overview of Towns and Commerce Before the Delhi Sultanate:

• During the centuries before the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, towns were fewer in number and smaller in size.
• D. Kosambi noted that even the capital was a temporary camp city, constantly on the move.
• The higher ruling class, along with the army, wandered from place to place, while the lower ruling class became largely rural.

S. Sharma's Perspective on Urban Decline:

• S. Sharma supported the idea of urban decline and backed his theory of urban decay with extensive archaeological data.
• He pointed out evidence of sluggish trade, the near disappearance of gold and silver currencies, and the lack of foreign coins in Indian coin hoards as signs of low foreign trade.
• The absence of regional dynasty coins in other regions' coin hoards suggested limited inland commerce.

Transition with the Delhi Sultanate:

• With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, the scenario changed dramatically.
• Archaeological and numismatic evidence supported the literary accounts of town growth and increased commerce.
• This shift led Muhammad Habib to propose the theory of 'Urban Revolution.'

Growth of towns

Definitions of a Town:

• A town is typically defined as a settlement with a population of 5,000 or more.
• Alternatively, a town can be characterized by having over 70% of its population engaged in non-agricultural occupations.

Evidence of Urban Growth:

• Due to the lack of archaeological evidence from the medieval period, which has not received much attention, we rely on literary sources to confirm the growth of urban centers.

Important Towns:

• Contemporary sources mention several major towns, including Delhi(the capital),Multan,Anhilwara (Patan),Cambay,Kara,Lakhnauti, and Daulatabad (Deogiri).
• Lahore was initially a significant town but declined after the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. It experienced a resurgence in the 14th century.
• Although precise population figures for these towns are unavailable, there are reliable indications that some of them were considered large cities by contemporary standards.

Delhi as the Largest City:

• Ibn Battuta, a traveler who visited Delhi in 1330, described it as an enormous city with a vast population, the largest in the Islamic East, despite Muhammad Tughluq relocating much of its population to Daulatabad.
• Ibn Battuta also noted that Daulatabad was large enough to rival Delhi in size.

New Towns:

• During this period, new towns were established, such as Jhain (Chhain) in Eastern Rajasthan, which was named ‘Shahr Nau’ during the reign of Alauddin Khalji(1296-1316).

Factors for Urban Expansion:

• The strength of the invaders lay in combination and not in dispersal, prompting the ruling class to stay at their iqta headquarters along with their cavalry.
• The iqta headquarters emerged as camp cities, such as Hansi,Kara, and Anhilwara, with a concentration of cavalry and the retinue of the muqti.
• Initially, revenue was realized through plundering surrounding villages, but by the 14th century, a cash nexus developed, with revenue collected in cash from peasants.
• Immigration from Islamic cultural areas brought in luxuries and comforts, encouraging the arrival of craftsmen, artisans, and other specialists.
• Immigrant master-craftsmen introduced new techniques and technologies, which Indian artisans eventually adopted.

Urban manufactures

Two-fold Impetus to Urban Craft Production:

• Demand from Sultanate Ruling Class: The Sultanate ruling class was town-centered, spending the vast resources it appropriated mainly in towns. This spending created a demand for services and manufactured goods. Even money spent on services indirectly supported the urban craft sector through a multiplier effect.
• Technological Advancements: The introduction of new technological devices by invaders spurred craft production. In the luxury sector,silk weaving and carpet weaving expanded, with significant contributions from Persia.
• Expansion of Major Industries: Industries such as papermaking and the building industry grew considerably, with the building sector being a major source of employment. Historical records indicate that Alauddin Khalji employed around 70,000 craftsmen for construction projects.
• Organization of Production: The production process could have been organized under two systems:
• Domestic System: Artisans worked independently with their own tools and raw materials, selling their products themselves.
• Putting-Out System: Artisans worked at home using their own tools, but the raw materials were provided by merchants.

Tools and Production:

• Despite the introduction of new devices, tools remained simple, primarily made of wood and iron, making them affordable.
• Artisans were generally in control of their own tools, although various forms of labor organization were likely in use.

Artisan Practices:

• Some artisans offered their services door-to-door, such as cotton-carders.
• Spinning was typically done by women at home.
• Weavers generally worked at home, using their own looms to weave cloth for sale, either from yarn they bought or spun themselves. They also wove yarn supplied by customers for wages.

Karkhanas:

• Karkhanas were workshops where craftsmen produced luxury items under supervision, especially when raw materials like silk, gold, or silver thread were expensive.
• Sultans and nobles established karkhanas for their own needs, contrary to the belief that they were primarily for market production.
• Shahabuddin al Umari noted that in Muhammad Tughluq’s karkhanas in Delhi, thousands of silk workers were employed as embroiderers.
• Afif documented that Feroz Tughluq’s karkhanas produced large quantities of cloth and carpets.
• While sources do not explicitly mention it, it is possible that merchants also maintained karkhanas for production intended for sale.

Non-Agricultural Production: technology and craft

Economic Resources During the Sultanate Period:

• Detailed accounts of the country's economic resources during the Sultanate period are lacking. These accounts are supplemented by Abul Fazl's writings in the Ain-i-Akbari, from the late 16th century.
• Tools and implements were generally inexpensive as they were made from wood and earth. Iron was used only when necessary. Materials like ropes, leather, and bamboo were utilized as needed.
• India had a variety of existing technologies and crafts. The arrival of Muslims introduced new technological articles and crafts, many of which had developed within Islamic culture.
• Key areas of manufacture included textiles,metallurgy,building activities,mining, and ancillary activities like leather-work,paper-making, and toy-making.

Textiles

Textile production was the largest industry in India, with a history dating back to ancient times.

• It involved the making of cotton, woollen, and silk cloth.

Cotton Cloth:

• Cotton cloth was classified into two categories: coarse and fine.

Coarse Cotton Cloth (Kamin):

• Coarse cloth, known as pat, was worn by the poor and faqirs.
• It was produced in households and regions like Awadh, from where it was imported into Delhi.

Superior Quality Cotton Cloth (Calico):

• Calico, a superior quality cotton cloth, was widely used.
• It was produced in places like Cambay (Khambayat) and other regions of Gujarat.

Fine Cotton Cloth (Mahin):

• Fine cotton cloth included muslin, produced in Sylhet, Dacca, and Deogir.
• Muslin was expensive and used by nobles and the wealthy.
• Gujarat was known for producing various fine cotton fabrics.
• Barbossa mentioned Cambay as a center for manufacturing fine and coarse cotton cloth, as well as other textiles like velvets, satins, and tafettas.

Printing Techniques:

• Cloth was often painted and printed using wooden blocks.
• Mulla Daud, a 14th-century poet, referred to printed cloth.

Spinning Wheel (Charkha):

• The spinning wheel, introduced during this period, improved cloth production.
• It increased spinning efficiency significantly compared to hand spindles.
• The spinning wheel was first referenced in Iran in the 12th century and became common in India by the 14th century.

Cotton Carding Bow (Naddaf, Dhunia):

• This device sped up the process of separating cotton fibers from seeds.

Silk Production:

• Silk was imported from Bengal, where silk worms were reared.
• Raw silk and silk yarn were also imported from Iran and Afghanistan.
• Silk cloth and cotton-silk blends were commonly used in Delhi and nearby areas.
• Cambay silk was a valuable item controlled by Alauddin Khalji.
• Gujarat was renowned for its patolas, intricate silk garments, and gold and silver embroidery on silk.

Wool Production:

• Wool was sourced from mountainous regions and plains.
• Finer woolen cloth and furs were mostly imported and worn by nobles.
• Kashmir had a well-established shawl industry, with shawls sent as gifts to foreign dignitaries.

Carpet Weaving:

• Carpet weaving flourished under Sultanate patronage, incorporating Iranian and Central Asian designs.

Dyeing Industry:

• Indigo and vegetable dyes were used for vibrant colors in textiles.
• The dyeing industry was linked with calico-painting, and the tie-and-dye method was practiced in Rajasthan.

Textile Industry Organization:

• Spinning was primarily women’s work, often done at home.
• Weaving was also a household industry, with materials purchased or supplied by merchants.
• Luxury items were produced in royal workshops or karkhanas.
• In Muhammad Tughlaq’s karkhanas, thousands of silk workers created various garments.
• Firuz Tughlaq employed many slaves in his karkhanas and parganas.

Textile Technology:

• Turks introduced various techniques in textiles, including ginning, carding, spinning, weaving, dyeing, and printing.

Ginning, Carding, and Spinning:

• Ginning involved seed extraction using roller and board methods or worm-press methods.
• Carding loosened cotton fibers through beating or bow-string techniques.
• Spinning traditionally used spindles, but the introduction of the spinning-wheel (charkha) by Muslims in the 13th-14th centuries revolutionized yarn production.
• The charkha increased yarn production significantly compared to the spindle.
• The spinning-wheel produced coarse yarn, while the spindle produced fine yarn.

Weaving:

• Horizontal looms, particularly thron-shuttle looms, were used for weaving.
• The pit-loom (treadle loom) was introduced later, allowing weavers to use their feet.

Dyeing and Printing:

• Colors were derived from vegetable and mineral sources, with indigo, madder, and lakh being commonly used.
• Block-printing was introduced during this period.

Metallurgy

Metal-Work Tradition in Ancient India:

• India had a long-standing tradition of metal-work, as seen in the iron pillar of Mehrauli(Delhi), which has withstood the test of time and weather for centuries.
• Many copper and mixed-metal idols reflect the skill of Indian metalworkers.
• Indian damascened swords and daggers were renowned worldwide.
• Bronze and copper vessels from the Deccan, including inlay work, were in high demand in West Asia.
• The high quality of Sultanate coinage demonstrates the expertise of Indian metalworkers.
• Gold and silversmiths in India were famous for creating fine jewelry, which was in great demand from both men and women.
• Smelting of ore was done using wood and charcoal, without a “blast” furnace, relying instead on bellows.

Building construction

The building industry was a major means of employment.
There had been a spurt of temple building activity in north India from the 10th century, as witnessed by the temples at Khajuraho in Bundelkhand, at Dilwara in Rajasthan and other places in Orissa and Gujarat.

Turkish sultans were also great builders, introducing new architectural elements like:

• Arches
• Dome
• Vaults

They also brought lime mortar, a crucial advancement in construction materials, which was used for:

• Cementing bricks and stones
• Enhancing the durability of structures
• Facilitating the construction of true arches

Lime mortar was a significant advancement brought by immigrants during the Delhi Sultanate. Traditionally, ancient India utilized clay, stones, wood, and occasionally bricks. The basic ingredients in lime mortar included:

• Lime (chuna): Lime was extracted from various sources, with gypsum and gravel (kankar) being the two major sources.
• Surkhi (pounded bricks): Surkhi was mixed with lime, and various cementing agents like gum, pulses, and jaggery were added to enhance the stickiness of the mortar.

The introduction of lime mortar led to several significant developments in architecture:

• Extensive use of bricks: Lime mortar made brick buildings more durable, leading to an increase in brick construction.
• True arches: Lime mortar enabled the construction of true arches, which required strong cementing material to hold the voussoirs together. This marked a departure from the pre-Muslim era when true arches were almost absent.
• Corbelled arches: A variant of trabeate construction, corbelled arches were prevalent before the introduction of true arches.

The transition from mihrab to gumbad (vaulted roofing or dome) was a natural progression, as domes are essentially true arches rotated 360 degrees. This advancement was made possible by the knowledge of true arch construction.

• There was a significant increase in brick making, leading to more people living in brick and stone houses. However, the poor continued to reside in mud houses with thatched roofs.
• Indian craftsmen were renowned for their stone cutting skills. Notable figures like Amir Khusrau praised the superiority of Delhi's masons and stonecutters compared to their counterparts in the Muslim world.

Notable builders included:

• Alauddin Khalji, who employed 70,000 craftsmen for construction projects.
• Firuz Tughlaq, known for establishing new towns and repairing old buildings, including mausoleums.
• Enamelled tiles were introduced during this period, enhancing the aesthetic appeal of buildings.
• Hindu Rajas and chiefs also contributed to building activities, leading to the establishment of new towns such as Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
• Woodwork of high quality was prevalent across the country, with artisans crafting doors, seats, and bed-stands for domestic use.

Papermaking and Bookbinding

Contribution of Immigrant Muslims to Papermaking:

• Papermaking was significantly advanced by immigrant Muslims in India.
• Paper was originally invented in China around the first century A.D., from where the Arabs learned the technique.
• The Arabs improved the papermaking process by using rags and ropes instead of the traditional mulberry trees and tree bark.
• In India, paper was known as early as the 7th century A.D., but it was not used for writing purposes at that time.
• When the Chinese traveler I-Ching visited India, he found no paper available to copy Sanskrit manuscripts for transport to China. He had to request more paper from a friend in China.
• Evidence of paper use in India does not appear until the 13th century, with the earliest known paper manuscript from Gujarat dated 1223-24.
• The introduction of papermaking greatly increased the availability of books.

Uses of Paper:

• Paper was utilized for various purposes, especially for books,farmans, and numerous commercial and administrative documents.
• Paper became so widely available that sweetmeat sellers in Delhi would deliver sweets in paper packets called purya, a practice still common in India today.
• Despite the increased availability, papermaking centers were scarce.
• According to Ma Huan, a 14th-century Chinese navigator, Bengal produced paper, but the majority of paper needed in India was imported from Islamic countries, particularly Samarqand and Syria.
• Craft of Bookbinding: An innovation in India that emerged alongside the practice of writing books on paper.

Other Crafts

Leather-working in India:

• Leather-working was a common craft in India, supported by the country's large cattle population.
• This craft was mainly organized along caste lines.
• High-quality saddles were made for horses, many of which were kept in stables or given as gifts to nobles.
• Gujarat was known for its beautiful leather mats, often in red and blue, adorned with designs of birds and animals or featuring inlaid work.

Other Crafts:

• Other important crafts included salt-making,quarrying for stone and marble, and the extraction of iron and copper ore.
• Salt was obtained by the natural evaporation of saline sea water collected in a systematic manner.
• Diamond mining occurred in places like Panna and parts of South India, while pearls were obtained by diving in the sea.
• Ivory working was also a significant craft during this time.

Military Technology

Tincoating

Tincoating in India: A Historical Overview:

• Tincoating, a craft introduced to India by the Turks, involves the application of tin to metallic vessels.
• The craftsman specializing in this process is known as a qalaigar(from qalai, meaning tin).
• Tin (ranga) is a metal known for its malleability and ductility. When coated over metallic vessels, it provides protection against corrosion and chemical poisoning.
• Historian Abul Fazl mentions tincoating in his work Ain-i Akbari. He notes that copper utensils in the royal kitchen were tinned twice a month, while those of princes and other nobles were tinned once a month.

Glass manufacture

• Earliest Use of Glass in India: Glass was first used in India around the first millennium B.C.
• Presence of Objects vs. Technological Knowledge: Just because an object is found in a society doesn't mean they understood the technology behind it.
• Early Indian Glass Objects: Initially, Indian glass items were limited to simple products like beads and bangles.
• Influence of Muslim Advent: With the arrival of Muslims, glass pharmaceutical phials, jars, and vessels began to be imported from Islamic countries.
• Delhi Sultanate Glassware: It's unclear if glassware made in India during the Delhi Sultanate was copied from these imports.
• Lack of Advanced Glass Manufacturing: During this period, India did not produce advanced glass items like lenses or mirrors.

Shipbuilding

Shipbuilding in Ancient India:

• Boats and ships were traditionally made from timber, similar to practices worldwide.
• The planks were initially joined using the rabbeting or tongue-and-groove method.
• They were then sewn together with ropes made from coconut husk, and sometimes wooden nails were used.
• The use of iron nails and clamps for joining planks became common later, influenced by European shipbuilding after 1498 A.D..
• Anchors were originally made of stone until Europeans introduced iron anchors.
• The magnetic compass for navigation was introduced in India by Muslims.

Distillation in Ancient India:

• Wine in ancient India was produced through fermentation, a method known worldwide, using materials like rice, sugarcane juice, or mahuwa flowers.
• Distillation was a later introduction, and it was mistakenly believed to be a Turkish contribution.
• However, archaeological findings at Sirkap(Taxila) and Shaikhan Dheri(Pakistan) revealed distillation apparatus dating from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D., predating the Turkish influence.
• These findings, now housed in the Taxila Museum, include parts of condensers and stills.
• The Turks may be credited with the eastward diffusion of distillation techniques.