Sultanate Architecture and New Structural Forms | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (13th Century):

• Tumultuous Beginnings: The initial phase was marked by widespread destruction, with numerous temples, palaces, and cities being devastated.
• Transition to Peace: Once a territory was conquered or had submitted, a process of peace and development would commence.

Pre-Islamic Contact and Post-Islamic Interaction:

• Historical Interaction: Contact between Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam existed before the arrival of Islam in India, but it intensified after Islam's introduction.
• Political vs. Religio-Philosophical Aspects: It is important to distinguish between political and religio-philosophical aspects, despite their overlap.

Religious Tensions and Mutual Adjustment:

• Bigotry and Hostility: Some intolerant ulemas, like Nuruddin Mubarak Ghazanavi during Iltutmish's reign, promoted hostility towards Hindus.
• Mutual Aversion: There were also Hindus who harbored animosity towards Muslims, opting for minimal contact.
• Rapprochement Process: Despite the apparent differences—Islam's strict monotheism versus Hinduism's diverse pantheon—there began a slow process of mutual adjustment.

Fields of Interaction:

• Architecture
• Literature
• Music
• Religion: Notably through the introduction of sufism and the bhakti movement in northern India.

Mughal Era:

• Intensification: The process of rapprochement accelerated during the 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th and 17th centuries under the Mughals.

Continued Conflict:

• Despite the process of mutual adjustment, elements of conflict persisted.
• Both conflict and rapprochement coexisted, with fluctuations in intensity depending on different rulers and regions.

Art and Architecture during Sultanate 

• Art and architecture reflect the culture and mindset of a society, serving as visual expressions of their ideas and techniques.
• The most valuable source for studying architecture is the surviving remains of buildings, which provide insights into the architectural techniques and styles of a particular period.
• However, these remains do not offer information on related aspects such as the role of architects, drawings, estimates, and accounts of the buildings.
• One of the primary needs of the new rulers was to establish houses and places of worship for their followers.
• Initially, they converted existing buildings, such as temples, into mosques. Examples include the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and Arhai Din ka Jhonpara.
• Over time, the Turks began constructing their own buildings, primarily using indigenous craftsmen like stone-cutters and masons, known for their exceptional skill.
• Eventually, some master architects from West Asia also came to India to contribute to the architectural landscape.

New Structural Forms

Arch and Dome

• Introduction of Lime-Mortar: In the 13th century, the use of lime-mortar as a basic cementing material led to a significant increase in masonry buildings.
• Architectural Techniques: The Turks extensively used the arch and dome in their constructions, which were not originally Turkish or Muslim inventions but were borrowed from Roman architecture through the Byzantine Empire.
• Advantages of Arch and Dome: The arch and dome allowed for large, open spaces without the need for numerous pillars, making them ideal for mosques and palaces. They also enhanced the skyline of buildings.
• Innovations in Dome Construction: Architects experimented with placing round domes on square buildings and raising domes higher, leading to the construction of impressive and lofty structures.
• Use of Quality Materials: The Turks employed fine quality lime mortar to ensure the stability of arches and domes, which required strong binding materials to hold stones or bricks in place.
• Construction Techniques: The true arch was constructed by laying stones or bricks in a curved shape and binding them with lime-mortar. This method was different from the Indian practice of stacking stones with gaps filled by coping stones or beams.
• Integration of Techniques: The Turkish rulers combined the dome and arch method with the slab and beam method in their buildings, leading to a shift from pre-Turkish forms to true arches, vaults, and domes.
• Pointed Arches: The pointed arch, inherited from the Islamic world, was favored for its durability and ease of construction. Variants like the four-centered arch were introduced by the Tughluqs in the 14th century.
• Bricks in Arch Construction: In regions with limited wood resources, such as West Asia and India, bricks were used instead of wood centering for raising pointed arches.

Building Material

Early Turkish Architecture in India:

• In the early Turkish buildings in India, architects rarely used newly quarried materials.
• Instead, they preferred richly carved capitals, columns, shafts, and lintels from pre-Turkish buildings, possibly due to a lack of resources.
• By the early 14th century, when the supply of such materials was depleted, builders started using originally quarried or manufactured materials.
• Stone was used abundantly in masonry work.
• The foundations were mostly made of rough and small rubble or river boulders when available, while the superstructure consisted of dressed stone or roughly shaped coarsed stonework.
• Regardless of the materials used, buildings were plastered all over.
• During the Khalji period, a new method of stone masonry involving headers and stretchers was introduced.
• This technique was retained in later buildings and became a characteristic of Mughal architecture.
• Gypsum was commonly used for plastering buildings.
• Lime plaster was reserved for areas needing protection against water leakage, such as roofs, indigo-vats, canals, and drains.
• By the 15th century, highly finished stucco work became common, with gypsum mortar preferred for plaster work on walls and ceilings.

Decoration

Decorative Art in Islamic Architecture:

• Concealment Over Revelation: The decorative art in Islamic buildings aimed to obscure the structural elements behind intricate motifs rather than showcasing them.
• Prohibition of Living Beings: Due to Quranic restrictions, the depiction of living creatures was avoided. Artists instead focused on geometric and floral patterns, often integrating these with panels of Quranic inscriptions.

Calligraphy:

• Quranic verses were inscribed in a distinctive angular script called kufi, which itself became a form of art.
• These inscriptions could be found throughout the building—on door frames, ceilings, wall panels, and niches—and were crafted from various materials like stone,stucco, and paint.

Geometry:

• Buildings featured a wide range of abstract geometric shapes, showcasing principles of repetition,symmetry, and continuous patterns.
• These designs often originated from basic shapes like circles, which could be transformed into squares, triangles, or other polygons.

Foliation:

• The arabesque was the most common decorative form in Sultanate architecture, characterized by a continuous, splitting stem that produces leafy branches.
• This pattern creates a visually balanced design with a three-dimensional appearance.
• Hindu motifs such as the bel,swastika, and lotus were also incorporated into the designs.

Material and Color Use:

• Indian stone-cutters' skills were heavily utilized, and the Turks introduced red sandstone for color.
• Yellow sandstone or marble was used for decoration and to highlight the red sandstone.

Pan-Islamic Principles: These decorative principles were applied across various building types during the Delhi Sultanate.

Stylistic Evolution

Overview of Indo-Islamic Architectural Evolution in Delhi:

• The Indo-Islamic architectural style in Delhi evolved significantly under the Sultans of Delhi.
• This discussion aims to provide a general outline of this evolution and highlight the key features that define its prominent phases.

The Early Form:

Indo-Islamic Architecture: A Historical Overview:

• Indo-Islamic architecture began in AD 1192 when the Turks occupied Delhi.
• The Jami Masjid, originally a Jain temple dedicated to Vishnu, was built by Qutbuddin Aibak after capturing Qila Rai Pithora. The mosque was completed in 1198 using materials from 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples.
• Located near the Qutb Minar in the Qutab Minar Complex, Delhi, the mosque featured a new facade with intricate carvings and an arcaded courtyard made from pillars of looted temples.
• In Ajmer, the Arhai Din ka Jhonpara, originally a monastery, displayed the influence of local architects who reused carved elements from Hindu architecture.
• Over time, the Indo-Islamic style evolved, with later buildings like the Qutab Minar(1199-1235),Arhai Din Ka Jhoupra(c. 1200), and Iltutmish’s tomb(1233-4) showcasing more Islamic decorative details.
• The construction technique of corbelling remained important, but the ornamentation became predominantly Islamic.
• The dome in these structures was supported by corbelled courses on squinches at the corners of the square chamber.

Qutub Minar

Qutb Minar: A Unique Architectural Marvel:

• Qutb Minar, standing at a remarkable height of 71.4 meters, is known for its tapering structure, making it visually striking.
• Constructed by the Turks, it is adjacent to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and was originally a place for calling the prayer (azan).
• The minar was later named Qutb Minar, possibly due to its association with Qutbuddin Aibak or Iltutmish. It became a symbol of the spiritual achievements of the famous Sufi saint Quibuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Some stones at the base of the minar are believed to be from destroyed temples in the area.
• An inscription on the minar mentions Fazl ibn Abul Maali, but it is unclear whether he was the architect or a supervisor.
• The original structure had four stories, but after being struck by lightning, a fifth storey was added by Firuz Tughlaq.
• The minar is renowned for its balconies linked by a technique called “stalactite honey-combing,” and the use of red and white sandstones adds to its beauty.
• The architectural style of the period showed the Turks' determination to build their own structures, as seen in various buildings across Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
• Iltutmish’s tomb exemplifies the blend of Hindu and Muslim architectural traditions, featuring intricate carvings and the innovative use of pendantives and squinch arches.
• The mausoleum of Balban, built around 1287-88, marked the culmination of the Early Form architectural style and introduced the true arch in Indo-Islamic architecture.
• Scholars and architects from West Asia migrated to India during this period, contributing to the development of architecture following the Mongol invasions.

The Khaljis

Building Activity During the Khalji Period:

• Alauddin Khalji initiated extensive building projects, including the establishment of his capital at Siri, near the Qutb site.
• Alauddin envisioned a towering structure, the Alai Minar, intended to be twice the height of the Qutb Minar, but he passed away before its completion.
• He made significant additions to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, notably the entrance door known as the Alai Darwaza.

Innovations in Architectural Techniques:

• The Alai Darwaza, constructed in 1305, marked a departure in dome construction techniques. Unlike previous methods that relied on overlapping masonry courses, this dome was built using radiating voussoirs.
• The introduction of the horse-shoe arch in this building was aesthetically pleasing and represented a significant architectural advancement.

Influence of Seljuq Traditions:

• In both the Alai Darwaza and the Jamat Khana Masjid(built in 1325 at Nizamuddin), a noticeable shift in architectural style occurred, reflecting the influence of Seljuq architectural traditions.
• This period is crucial in the evolution of Indo-Islamic architecture, showcasing distinct compositional features that would be adopted in later styles.

Decorative Elements and Materials:

• The decorative features of these buildings included merlons inside the arch, lotus motifs on the arch spandrel, and the use of white marble in trellis work and decorative bands.
• These elements, along with the contrast between red sandstone and marble, contributed to the buildings' grace and strength, a hallmark of Indian architectural tradition.

Advancements in Mosque Architecture:

• The Jamaat Khana mosque at the mausoleum of Nizamuddin Auliya exemplifies the development of mosque architecture during this period.
• Characteristic features of this phase included the use of true arches, pointed horse-shoe shapes, and the emergence of true domes with recessed arches under the squinch.

Materials and Decorative Styles:

• New building materials such as red sandstone and decorative marble reliefs were employed.
• The lotus-bud fringe under the arch, a Seljuq feature, and new masonry-facing techniques also emerged.
• Decorative features characterized by calligraphy,geometry, and arabesque became more pronounced and bold during this period.

The Tughluqs

Architectural Developments in the Tughlaq Period:

• During the Tughlaq period, there was significant building activity, representing the peak of the Delhi Sultanate before its decline.
• A new architectural style emerged during this time, which can be categorized into two main groups based on the rulers: Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq in one group, and Firoz Tughlaq in the other.

Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq's Contributions:

• They constructed the Tughlaqabad palace-fortress complex, surrounded by a large artificial lake created by blocking the Jamuna River.
• The tomb of Ghiyasuddin introduced a new architectural trend with buildings raised on high platforms for better skylines, featuring marble domes.
• Notable features included sloping walls(“batter”) for strength and solidity, although used sparingly by Firoz Tughlaq.
• They also innovatively combined the principles of the arch and the lintel and beam in their constructions.

Firoz Tughlaq's Architectural Style:

• Firoz Tughlaq's buildings, such as those in Hauz Khas and the new fort (now Kotla), showcased alternating stories of arches and lintels.
• Unlike his predecessors, the Tughlaqs primarily used greystone instead of costly red sandstone for construction.
• Firoz Tughlaq's buildings often featured rubble finished with thick coats of lime plaster, typically color-washed white, a method still in use today.
• Decorations were minimal due to the difficulty of carving greystone or lime plaster, but lotus motifs were common.
• A unique feature in Firoz Tughlaq's tomb was the stone-railing in Hindu design.

Construction Techniques and Materials:

• The Tughlaq period saw the introduction of octagonal tombs, as seen in the tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Telangani, which was surrounded by a verandah and topped with chhatris.
• Both the arch and lintel-beam methods were utilized in their buildings.
• Stone rubble was the main building material, with plastered walls and bastions, often featuring battered walls for a sturdy appearance.
• The four-centered arch and its reinforcement with a supporting beam became a signature of Tughlaq architecture, replacing the narrower pointed horse-shoe arch.
• The period also saw the emergence of a pointed dome with a visible neck, replacing the stifled domes of earlier styles.
• Encaustic tiles were introduced for decorative panels, and octagonal tomb plans became popular, later refined by the Mughals.
• Ornamentation was reduced, focusing on inscribed borders and medallions in plaster or stucco.

Religious Architecture:

• Numerous mosques were built, such as the Kalan mosque in Nizamuddin and the Khirki mosque in South Delhi (by Firoz Tughlaq).
• These mosques were made of undressed stone and lime plaster, appearing less elegant due to thick, heavy pillars.
• The builders of the time had not yet mastered the technique of raising domes high enough, resulting in squat structures.

The Final phase

By the end of the Sultanate period, a significant number of tombs were constructed in and around Delhi, creating an area that resembled a vast graveyard over time.

Despite this, some of these structures hold architectural significance and are considered to mark the beginning of a distinct style.

• The Lodi rulers continued the Tughlaq tradition of using rubble or undressed stone and lime plaster in their buildings. However, by this time, Indian architects and masons had gained confidence in the new forms, resulting in domes that rose higher into the sky.
• The introduction of the double dome in India was a notable innovation during this period. Initially experimented with, it reached a developed form in the tomb of Sikandar Lodi. This technique became necessary as domes increased in height. By incorporating an inner cover within the dome, the height remained proportionate to the interior space. This method was later applied in all buildings.
• Another technique used by the Lodis was placing their buildings, particularly tombs, on high platforms. This not only enhanced the perceived size of the structure but also improved the skyline. Some tombs were set amidst gardens, with the Lodi Garden in Delhi serving as an excellent example of this practice.
• Many of these features were later adopted by the Mughals, culminating in the Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan.

The more significant tombs took on two distinct forms, each with its own characteristics:

Mausoleums with an octagonal design:

• Central tomb chamber surrounded by an arched verandah.
• Single-storey structure.
• Verandah with projecting eaves supported by brackets.

Tombs with a square plan:

• No verandah around the main tomb chamber.
• Exterior with two or three storeys.
• Lack of eaves and supporting brackets.

These buildings also featured original treatments of coloured tile decoration, applied sparingly in friezes, along with intricately incised plaster surfaces.

• The end of the Delhi Sultanate in 1526 marked the conclusion of the Sultanate architectural style, which had shown signs of stagnation since the 15th century.
• As the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated, distinct architectural styles emerged in various kingdoms across India, strongly influenced by local architectural traditions. This phenomenon was observed in regions like Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, and the Deccan.
• During the 15th century, there was a surge in architectural activity, blending Muslim and Hindu architectural traditions.
• In the newly formed regional kingdoms, attempts were made to merge the architectural style developed in Delhi with regional traditions, resulting in a rich tapestry of diverse architectural expressions.

Public Buildings and Public Work

Contrary to popular belief, the number of non-royal structures (such as sarai, bridges, irrigation tanks, wells, baolis, dams, kachehris, prison houses, kotwalis, dak-chaukis, hammams, and katras) far exceeds that of royal buildings. These structures, available to the general public regardless of religious affiliations, include:

• Sarai: Introduced in India by the Turks in the 13th century, these public buildings were characterized by a square or rectangular layout, enclosed by masonry walls, with a series of rooms, warehouses, a small mosque, and wells.
• Bridges: Masonry bridges were built over small and medium-sized rivers, while major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna had boat bridges. Surviving examples include the masonry bridges at Chittorgarh and Wazirabad, Delhi.
• Weirs and Step-wells: Structures like the gandhak ki baoli, built by Iltutmish at Mehrauli (Delhi), are examples of step-wells from this period.