Famine and Poverty in the Rural interior | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Ancient and Medieval India and Famines

• In ancient and medieval India, famines were a reality, though the frequency and government response varied.
• The Arthashastra mentioned measures for famine relief.
• Famines occurred under rulers like Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• Unlike the British, these rulers took more proactive measures to address famines.

Factors Contributing to Famines in the Nineteenth Century

Commercialization of Agriculture:

• Led to a decline in food crop cultivation as commercial non-food grains replaced food grains.
• From 1893-94 to 1945-46, commercial crop production increased by 85%, while food crop production decreased by 7%.
• This shift severely impacted the rural economy and contributed to famines.

Revenue Settlements:

• Permanent, Ryotwari and Mahalwari settlements imposed heavy land revenue on peasants.
• These policies led to rural indebtedness and deindustrialization, reducing artisans' purchasing power.
• The resulting penury made food prices unaffordable, contributing to famine conditions.

Permanent Settlement:

• Caused subinfeudation and absentee landlordism.
• These issues reduced investment in agriculture and related activities.
• With a growing population and diminished production, famines became more frequent.

Environmental Imperialism:

• British encroachment into tribal areas and the implementation of forest acts restricted tribal access to forest resources.
• These actions prohibited Jhum cultivation, creating famine conditions in tribal regions.

Diversion of Food Grains:

• Diverting food grains to meet military needs was a significant factor in the Great Bengal Famine of 1942-43.

Famine and Scarcity in India under East India Company

• India experienced twelve famines and four severe scarcities during the rule of the East India Company.
• The first famine was the Bengal Famine of 1769-70, which killed a third of Bengal's population. Instead of providing relief, Company officials profited by buying and reselling rice at high prices.
• Madras faced scarcity in 1781 and 1782, while northern India suffered a severe famine in 1784.
• During the Madras famine of 1792, the government opened relief works for those affected.
• The Famine Commission of 1880 reported that the British lacked the means and obligation to provide relief until the late 18th century.
• In the 1803 famine affecting North Western Provinces and Oudh, the government offered revenue remissions, loans and bounties on grain imports.
• The Guntur Famine of 1833 was devastating, with 2 lakh deaths out of a population of 5 lakhs.
• A severe famine in 1837 in Upper India led to the opening of public works, but relief for the helpless and infirm was left to charitable individuals.
• Under the East India Company, there was no systematic approach to famine relief or prevention. However, provincial governments and district officers attempted various relief measures, such as grain storage, penalties on hoarding, bounties on imports and loans for well sinking.

Famine under the crown administration- (1858-1947)

Transfer of Power and Economic Developments:

• The transfer of power from the company to the crown, along with economic developments in the late 19th century such as the expansion of railways, improved communication and growth in overseas trade, changed the nature of the problem.
• The state recognized its responsibility for expanding irrigation facilities, enacting agrarian legislation, adopting preventive measures, and formulating famine relief policies to address potential famines.
• During British rule, the crown appointed various committees and commissions to address famine issues.

Severe Famines under British Crown:

• Under British Crown rule, there were ten severe famines and numerous scarcities. Major famines in the 19th century included:
• 1860-61: Delhi-Agra region
• 1866: Orissa famine
• 1876-78: Large-scale famine
• 1896-97: Severe famine
• 1899-1900: Another major famine

1860-61 Famine in Delhi-Agra Region:

• The first recorded famine occurred in 1860-61 between Delhi and Agra.
• During this famine, poor-houses were established for relief, and authorities began investigating the causes, affected areas and intensity of the famine.
• Colonel Baird Smith Committee: The first committee on famine relief was set up, but its report did not lead to the establishment of general relief principles.

The Orissa Famine of 1866:

• In 1865, a drought was followed by a severe famine in 1866, impacting Orissa, Madras, Northern Bengal and Bihar. The situation was most dire in Orissa, leading to the term "Orissa Famines."
• Despite being forewarned, government officials took no preventive measures and appeared helpless when the crisis struck.
• The government adhered to free trade principles and the law of demand and supply, providing employment to the able-bodied but leaving charitable relief to voluntary agencies. Due to the inadequacy of voluntary efforts, the famine resulted in a significant loss of life, with an estimated 1.3 million deaths in Orissa alone.

George Campbell Committee:

• In the aftermath of the Orissa famine, a committee chaired by Sir George Campbell was appointed to investigate the situation.
• The committee's recommendations anticipated those of the Royal Commission of 1880, shifting the responsibility for relief from the public to the government.
• The government was expected to borrow funds for building railways and canals, and district officers were made responsible for preventing avoidable deaths.

The Famine of 1868:

• In 1868, a severe famine struck Northern and Central India, with Rajputana and Central India being the hardest hit.
• Although the government took some action to relieve distress, the efforts were insufficient compared to the scale of the crisis, resulting in significant loss of life.

The Great Famine of 1876-78:

• The famine of 1876-78 was one of the most severe calamities since the early 19th century, affecting Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh and the Punjab.
• The affected area spanned 257,000 square miles with a population exceeding 58 million. Many villages were depopulated, and large areas ceased to be cultivated.
• Historian R.C. Dutt estimated that 5 million people died within a year due to the famine.
• The government’s response was inadequate and ineffective, with the famine relief machinery being poorly organized.
• Additionally, the government did not acknowledge its responsibility for preserving human lives during this crisis.

Strachey Commission, 1880:

• In 1880, the Government of Lytton set up a Commission led by Sir Richard Strachey to establish guidelines for dealing with famines.
• The Commission suggested the following key principles:
• Famine Code: Creation of a Famine Code.
• Land Revenue: Suspension or remission of land revenue and rent.
• Relief Duty: States should be responsible for providing relief.
• Peasant Information: Gathering information about the condition of peasants.
• Wages: Adjusting wages to ensure sufficient food for laborers.
• Famine Relief Costs: Provincial governments should bear the cost of famine relief, with central assistance available when needed.
• Food Supplies: Monitoring food supplies in distressed areas, while allowing private trade in food supply and distribution.
• This committee laid the groundwork for Famine Policy, including the establishment of a Famine Fund and a new budget head for famine relief and insurance.
• The government broadly accepted the Commission's recommendations and sought new resources for the Famine Fund.
• In 1883, a provisional Famine Code was developed, serving as a guide for various provincial codes.
• The Famine Code was formalized in 1886 and consisted of four main parts:
• Part 1: Precautions during normal times.
• Part II: Instructions for imminent relief campaigns.
• Part III: Duties of all parties involved in relief efforts.
• Part IV: Mapping of famine-prone areas.
• Between 1880 and 1896, there were two famines and five scarcities, providing opportunities to test and revise the provincial codes.

The Famine of 1896-97:

• The great famine of 1896-97 impacted nearly every province, though with varying severity, affecting an estimated 34 million people.
• Relief operations were conducted with a fair degree of success, except in the Central Provinces where the death rate soared.
• Extensive relief efforts were undertaken, with many people being assisted in their own homes.
• The total cost of relief was estimated at 7.27 crores.

James Lyall Commission–1898:

• A commission led by Sir James Lyall, former Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab, largely supported the views of the 1880 commission with some modifications.

The Famine of 1899-1900:

• Affected almost all provinces, covering an area of 189,000 square miles and impacting a population of 28 million.
• Authorities failed or refused to open relief works in the early stages of the famine and when they did, the system was overwhelmed.
• Relief expenditure reached Rs. 10 crores.

Anthony Macdonnel Commission:

• Appointed by Lord Curzon under the leadership of Sir Anthony MacDonnell.
• Summarized accepted principles of relief with necessary variations.

Key Recommendations:

• Appointment of a Famine Commissioner in provinces expecting extensive relief operations.
• Establishment of Agricultural Banks.
• Early distribution of advances for seed and cattle purchase and sinking of temporary wells.
• Enhancement of irrigation facilities.
• Improvement of transport facilities.
• Revision of the famine code.
• Introduction of a moral strategy.
• Enlistment of non-official assistance on a larger scale.
• Preference for village works over large public works in specific circumstances.
• Most of the Commission's recommendations were accepted and various measures were implemented to prevent and combat famine before Curzon's departure from India.

Colin Scott Commission–1901:

• Established by Curzon to improve irrigation facilities.
• Between 1901 and 1941, numerous famines and local scarcities occurred, with 1906-07 and 1907-08 being particularly severe.
• The moral strategy recommended by Anthony MacDonnell was implemented during the famine of 1907-08.

Bengal Famine of 1942-43:

• The Great Bengal Famine of 1942-43 resulted in a significant loss of life.
• The primary cause of the famine was a series of crop failures in Bengal starting from 1938, compounded by the conditions created by the Second World War.
• The usual import of rice from Burma was halted, and the trade and movement of food grains were disrupted due to wartime controls and Bengal's proximity to the Eastern theater of war.
• This famine was more of a man-made disaster than a natural one, as humans exploited the situation created by nature and war.
• Relief measures were delayed and inadequate:
  (i) The delay in addressing the relief issue and the failure to declare the famine were linked to the war propaganda policy of "no shortage."
  (ii) At one point, relief expenditure was limited due to financial constraints.
  (iii) Additionally, the Central Government showed a lack of concern for Bengal's plight and expected the Provincial Government of Bengal to manage and organize famine relief.
• In response to the famine, the John Woodhead Commission was established, marking the last famine commission.

John Woodhead Commission (1943-44) :During the famine in Bengal in 1942-43, the commission made several important recommendations:

• Establishment of an All India Food Council
• Increase in the production of food crops
• Merger of the Departments of Food and Agriculture
• It is clear that famines in British India were frequent disasters. Government efforts were half-hearted, the famine machinery was inadequate and ineffective and the funds allocated were limited. The evolution of famine policy was slow and often misguided. For a long time, there was no coherent famine policy. Thus, the role of famine policy in addressing the challenges posed by famines was minimal.

Effects of Agricultural Commercialization in Colonial India

• Agricultural commercialization led to the replacement of food crops with commercial cash crops. This shift discouraged the cultivation of traditional food crops like jowar, bajra and pulses, which were staples for poorer populations.
• The transition to cash crops negatively impacted the overall food situation in the country, contributing to famines. The famines in Orissa and Bengal in 1866 are examples of the consequences of this crop substitution.
• There is ongoing debate about whether the expansion of commercial agriculture in India occurred at the expense of food crops. However, the output of commercial crops increased more significantly than that of food crops during this period.
• Establishing a direct link between commercialization and famines is challenging. While cash crops may have displaced food grains from better quality land in some areas, leading to lower food grain output, this was not a widespread phenomenon. Generally, food crops and cash crops were grown simultaneously in most regions.
• By the end of colonial rule, food crops were still being cultivated on 80 percent of the cropped land. However, the overall production of food crops did not keep pace with population growth.
• Some historians argue that the growth of trade and market integration, facilitated by infrastructure development, actuallyenhanced food security and reduced the frequency and severity of famines in colonial India. This perspective is contentious, especially in light of the Bengal famine of 1943, which occurred after a prolonged period of declining per capita rice availability in the province.