Persian Literature, The regional languages of North India,Literature in the languages of South India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Literature in the Sultanate Period:

• During the Sultanate period, there was a flourishing of literature and a significant growth in culture. New languages were introduced, leading to a cultural and literary synthesis.
• This synthesis is evident in the creation and development of Urdu as a synthetic language, as well as the interplay between Persian and Sanskrit.
• Regional languages and literature, heavily influenced by Sanskrit and Persian, reflected the religious, social, and popular attitudes of the time.
• Hindi works by Muslim writers such as Amir Khusrau and Jayasi, along with Bengali Vaishnavite poems composed by Bengali Muslims, exemplify the cultural synthesis occurring during this period.

Arabic

Arabic and Persian Influence on Literature in India:

• Muslim literature was primarily produced in Arabic, the language of the Prophet Muhammad, which was widely used from Spain to Baghdad for literature and philosophy.
• The Turks who came to India were significantly influenced by Persian, which had become the literary and administrative language of Central Asia and Iran since the 10th century.
• Despite the importance of Arabic, literary works in this language were mostly limited to a small group of Islamic scholars and philosophers in India.
• Over time,digests of Islamic law began to be prepared in Persian, often with the assistance of Indian scholars.
• The Fiqh-i-Firuzshahi, a notable digest of Islamic law, was created during the reign of Firuz Tughlaq.
• During the rule of Iltutmish, many Arabic scholars fled to Delhi after the sack of Bukhara by Genghis Khan.
• Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq(1351-1388) supported Arabic scholars, leading to the creation of the Qamus, a significant Arabic dictionary by Majduddin Ferozabadi.
• After the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, many provincial rulers also patronized Arabic learning, establishing centers of Arabic scholarship.
• Arabic digests continued to be produced, with the Fatawa-i-Alamgiri, or Digest of Laws, being one of the most famous, prepared during the reign of Aurangzeb.

Persian literature 

• During the 10th century, with the arrival of the Turks in India, a new language, Persian, was introduced into the subcontinent. This period also saw a revival of the Persian language in Iran and Central Asia.
• The Turks quickly embraced Persian as the language of literature and administration in India. Through Persian, India established strong cultural ties with Central Asia and Iran.
• Over time, Persian evolved into the language of administration, diplomacy, and the upper classes across much of India, initially in the north and later throughout the country as the Delhi Sultanate expanded southward and various Muslim kingdoms emerged.

Early Phase of Persian in India:

• Pursuing the Ghaznavi rule in the Punjab, Persian was introduced in India during the 10th century.
• Remarkable growth in Persian literature occurred in Iran and Central Asia during this period.
• Prominent Persian poets like Firdausi and Sadi flourished during this literary surge.
• Lahore, the center of Turkish authority in India before the 13th century, attracted many Persian poets from Iran and Central Asia.
• Masud Sad Salman, a Persian poet, expressed his deep attachment to Lahore in his compositions.
• Al-Biruni, a great scholar who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni to India, contributed to the scholarly environment.
• Pernian literature in India before the Delhi Sultanate was derivative, mirroring the literary forms and imagery of Iran.
• With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Indian influence began to shape Persian works created in India.
• Sultans of Delhi, such as Iltutmish,Balban, and Ala-ud-din Khilji, supported Persian scholars and fostered the growth of Persian literature.
• Many Muslim scholars from Persia and Central Asia sought refuge at the courts of these Sultans, escaping the Mongol invasions.
• Khwaja Abu Nasr Naisiri,Abu Bakar bin Muhammad Ruhani,Taj-ud-din, and Nur-ud-din Muhammad Awfi were notable scholars at Sultan Iltutmish's court.
• Prince Muhammad, the eldest son of Sultan Balban, was a patron of scholars, providing protection to renowned figures like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.

Contribution of Amir Khusrau (c.1252-1325)

• The Khalji era was a significant period for the growth of Persian literature in India.
• Historian Ziauddin Barani noted the exceptional scholars in Delhi during this time, comparing them to renowned figures like Razi and Ghazali.
• Amir Khusrau(1253-1325) was the most prominent Persian scholar and poet of the period. He was highly regarded for his contributions to Persian literature.
• Historian Badauni praised Khusrau, stating that his poetry outshone that of his predecessors.
• Khusrau’s works marked the beginning of a trend in Indian-based Persian literature, showing a growing familiarity with and influence from Indian literature.
• He was also a skilled musician and participated in religious musical gatherings led by the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Khusrau reportedly died shortly after learning of Nizamuddin Auliya’s death in 1325 and was buried in the same compound.
• He served as the court poet during the reigns of Jalaluddin Khalji and Alauddin Khalji and witnessed the rule of seven Sultans.
• His poetry, while following Persian models in technique, was Indian in sentiment, leading to the creation of a new style known as sabaq-i Hindi or the Indian style.
• Five of his literary masterpieces include kutla-ul Anwar,Shirin Khusrau,Laila Majnun,Ayina-i Sikmdari, and Hasht Bihisht, all dedicated to Alauddin Khalji.
• His five diwans, collections of ghazals, showcase his lyrical talent. These include Tuhfat us Sighar,wast-ul-Hayat,Ghurrat-ul Kamal,Baqiya Naqiya, and Nihayat-ul Kamal.
• Khusrau also wrote historical masnavis, which are narrative poems with significant literary and historical value.
• Some notable works include:
  • Qiran-us Sa’dain: Describes the conflict and reconciliation between Sultan Kaiqubad and his father Bughra Khan.
  • Miftah-ul Futuh: Focuses on the military achievements of Sultan Jalauddin Khalji.
  • 'Ashiqa': Tells the romantic story of Khizr Khan, son of Sultan Alauddin Khalji, and Deval Rani, daughter of Raja Karan of Gujarat.
  • Nuh Shiphr: Offers a political account of Sultan Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji’s reign and discusses contemporary social and religious conditions.
  • Tughluq Nama: Chronicles Ghiyasuddin Tughluq’s rise to power.
  • Khazain-ul Futuh: Details Alauddin Khalji’s conquests in the South.
• Although not a historian in the traditional sense, Khusrau is of interest to students of history because:
  • He was supported by successive Sultans of Delhi.
  • He chose historical themes for his masnavis.
  • As a court poet, he viewed events from an official perspective.
• A notable aspect of Khusrau’s Persian poetry is his love for his country. He praised India, emphasizing its superiority over Khurasan and highlighting its beauty, climate, and learned scholars.
• Khusrau’s affection for India reflects the Turkish ruling class’s shift from being foreign rulers to integrating with Indian culture, paving the way for cultural rapprochement.
• He also composed verses in hindavi, a precursor to Urdu, influencing the future development of the Urdu language.

Other Persian Poets

Shaik Najmuddin Hasan (d. A.D. 1327), also known as Hasan Dehlawi, was a renowned Persian poet during the Sultanate period.

• He served as a court poet for Sultan Alauddin Khalji and was a contemporary of the famous poet Amir Khusrau.
• His ghazals were highly regarded, earning him the title of the "S’adi of Hindustan."
• Hasan Dehlawi composed a Diwan(a collection of poems) and wrote memoirs about Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din Aulia, a prominent Sufi saint.

Badr-ud-Din, another notable poet, hailed from Taskhand and served in the court of Muhammad Tughlaq. He was known for composing odes in praise of the Sultan.

• Badr-ud-Din's poetry was characterized by its difficulty and heavy use of imagery.

The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate facilitated the spread of Persian literature to various parts of India.

With the emergence of provincial kingdoms after the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, such as the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan, many Persian poets and scholars migrated to places like Gulbarga, where they were patronized by the Bahmani Sultans.

Historical Works in Persian

Persian Literature and Historical Writing during the Sultanate and Mughal Periods

Persian literature made significant contributions to history writing during the Sultanate and Mughal periods. Many historians wrote about this era in the Persian language.

Notable Historians:

• Minhaj Siraj: Wrote the Tabsqat-i Nasiri noted for its brevity and vigor.
• Isami: Author of Futuh-us Salatin.
• Shams Siraj Afif: Wrote Tarikh-i Feroz Shahi, continued Barani's work but was more methodical.
• Feroz Shah Tughluq: Wrote Futuhat-i Ferozshahi.
• Ain-ul-Mulk Multani: Wrote Ain-ul-Mulk and Munshat-i-Mahru, providing insights into the political, social, and religious conditions of his time.
• Ghulam Yahya bin Ahmad: Author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, valuable for correcting and supplementing earlier historians.
• Ziauddin Barani: Greatest historian of the period, wrote Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, a comprehensive work patronized by Muhammad Tughlaq and Firuz Tughlaq.

Reliability of Court Chroniclers:

• Dependence on court chroniclers for Sultanate history despite their methodological flaws and personal biases.
• Chroniclers like Minhaj Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, Afif, and Isami offer valuable, though sometimes flawed, historical accounts.

Ziauddin Barani

Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi by Barani in 1357, at 74, is a key historical work, despite his fading memory causing errors and biases. It covers not just rulers but also administration and social conflicts.

Write a short essay on: “Ziauddin Barani as a historian.” 

Ziauddin Barani: A Medieval Historian

Barani's Importance:

• Ziauddin Barani is a significant medieval historian known for his works on the Delhi Sultanate.
• He wrote important texts such as the Inayatnama-i-llahi,Hasaratnama,Fatwah-i-Jahandari, and Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.

Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi:

• Written in 1357, this book is a crucial source for the history of the Delhi Sultanate.
• It spans from Sultan Balban's reign to the early years of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq.
• Barani covers the consolidation, expansion, and early disintegration of the Sultanate, discussing rulers like Balban, Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, and Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
• He provides detailed accounts of their policies, achievements, and failures.

Fatwa-i-Jahandari:

• This work explores the principles of governance under the Sultans.
• It outlines political ideals for Muslim rulers to gain religious merit and the gratitude of their subjects.

Views on History:

• Barani values history as a tool for imparting lessons and guiding rulers.
• He believes history benefits Sultans, wazirs, and nobles, while being of no use to the base and lowborn.
• History, for Barani, is a means to proclaim Islamic glory and strengthen the state.
• He sees history as closely related to the science of hadis.

Barani as a Narrator:

• Barani is considered an authentic narrator due to his personal contacts with rulers like Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
• His uncle, Ala-ul-Mulk, had connections with Alauddin Khalji, providing Barani with reliable information.
• Barani held a respectable position at the courts of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and Muhammad Tughlaq.
• Despite Sultan Firuz Tughlaq's displeasure with him, Barani remained close to the court and witnessed many events.

Shortcomings in Barani's Account:

• As a court writer, Barani occasionally praised the Sultans excessively to avoid conflict.
• His orthodox Muslim beliefs and biases based on religion and class affect his accounts.
• For instance, in Fatwa-i-Jahandari, he accepted the segregation of Muslim ashraf and ajlaf classes.
• His narrative lacks chronological order, and he is not meticulous about dates.

Sufi Literature in Persian

• A large amount of religious and philosophical literature was produced in Persian during this period.
• Sufi literature in Persian holds significant value from both religious and literary perspectives.
• A unique genre of Persian literature called malfuzat(conversations or discourses of prominent Sufi masters) emerged during this time.
• The malfuzat often included didactic poetry and anecdotes.
• Amir Hasan Sijzi authored the malfuzat of the renowned Chishti Sufi master Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, known as Fawaid-ul Fu’ad.
• These works were produced in response to the growing public interest in the lives, teachings, and miracles of various Sufis.
• Siyaru-ul Auliya by Mir Khwurd is the earliest known biographical dictionary of Sufis written in India.
• Khair-ul-Miajah is the malfuzat of Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud (Chiragh Delhi).
• These literary works often reflect the social and economic realities of the time, in addition to spiritual matters.

Sanskrit Translations in Persian

Sanskrit and Persian as Link Languages:

• Sanskrit and Persian served as important link languages in politics, religion, philosophy, and literature in India.
• Initially, there was little interaction between the two languages.

Early Translations and Literary Contributions:

• Zia Nakhshabi(d. 1350) was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
• The Tuti Nama(Book of the Parrot), written during the time of Muhammad Tughlaq, was based on a Sanskrit work and became popular.
• Nakhshabi also translated the ancient Indian treatise on sexology,Kok Shastra, into Persian.

Pioneering Contributions of Amir Khusrau:

• Amir Khusrau laid the groundwork for literary and cultural synthesis in Indian society through his pioneering experiments.

Translations under Firuz Shah and Sikandar Lodi:

• During the time of Firuz Shah, Sanskrit books on medicine and music were translated into Persian.
• During the reign of Sikandar Lodi, many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian.

Zain-ul Abedin's Translations in Kashmir:

• Zain-ul Abedin, a notable ruler of Kashmir in the 15th century, commissioned translations of the Mahabharata and Kalahan’s Rajatarangini from Sanskrit into Persian.

Lack of Reciprocity and Decline of Sanskrit Literature:

• There was a lack of effort by non-Muslim scholars who knew Sanskrit to translate Persian and Arabic works into Sanskrit.
• This absence of reciprocity reflected the insular outlook of the Brahmanical elite, as noted by Alberuni in the 11th century.
• The lack of receptivity to ideas from other cultures may have contributed to the decline of Sanskrit literature during this period.

Persian's Prominence and Influence:

• Persian held a significant place among the languages of the period, becoming the official language and the language of the sultanate ruling elite.
• Persian introduced new social and religious ideas, broadened the intellectual horizons of Indian poets, thinkers, and social reformers, and brought in new literary forms and styles.

Literary Production in Provinces:

• Some literature was produced under the patronage of rulers in various provinces, with Jaunpur notable for its seat of learning.
• Many learned individuals were attracted to the court of Ibrahim in Jaunpur.

Sanskrit Literature 

Sanskrit Literature during the Sultanate Period:

• Sanskrit remained a medium for higher thought and literature despite losing royal support.
• Persian became the official language, but Sanskrit literary production continued, albeit with declining quality.
• The decline in quality began before the Sultanate and worsened during this period, with many works being repetitive and artificial.
• The introduction of paper facilitated the reproduction of existing texts like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, contributing to quantitative production.
• Specialized schools and academies thrived, reproducing and disseminating older texts, leading to the preservation of some of the oldest available versions.
• Regions such as South India, Bengal, Mithila, and Western India became centers for Sanskrit literary production.
• Advaita philosophy continued to be explored in Sanskrit, with figures like Ramanuja and others contributing significantly.
• Various works on Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika, and other philosophical systems were produced.
• Patronage from Hindu rulers, particularly in Warangal and the Vijayanagara Empire, supported Sanskrit literature.
• Works on philosophy, drama, poetry, and fiction flourished, with notable contributions from various scholars.
• Commentaries on Hindu law, such as the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga, were significant legal texts during this period.
• Sanskrit works in astronomy, music, and other fields were produced, with notable figures like Bhaskaracharya contributing to astronomy.
• The Jains also contributed to Sanskrit literature, with authors like Naga Chandra and Hemachandra making notable works.
• Historical texts like the Rajatarangini and semi-historical Prabandhas were written, with some containing historical significance.
• Translations of Islamic works into Sanskrit were rare, with few exceptions.
• Overall, the period saw a mix of continuity in production and decline in originality and quality in Sanskrit literature.

Literature in the regional languages of North India 

Development of Regional Language Literature in Northern India:

• During this period, there was a significant growth of literature in regional languages across various parts of India, especially in northern India.
• Regional languages that rapidly developed during this time included Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, and Gujarati.
• These languages originated from corresponding Indo-Aryan Prakrits in their Apabhramsa stage, with roots tracing back to the seventh and eighth centuries.
• Languages like Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi can trace their origins back to around the eighth century.

Social background of the development of regional languages

Regional Languages and Literature: 

• The rise of regional languages and their use for literary works became a notable feature of the medieval period.

Decline of Sanskrit Literature: 

• The decline in the quality of Sanskrit literature began before the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Much of the Sanskrit literature from the 10th to 11th centuries lacked spontaneity and did not appeal to the masses, being confined to a small Brahmanical circle.
• The replacement of Sanskrit by Persian as the official language during the Sultanate period further contributed to the decline of Sanskrit literature.

Rise of Regional Languages: 

• During the Sultanate period, many kingdoms promoted the use of regional languages, as Persian was unfamiliar in many parts of the country.
• Regional languages were used alongside Sanskrit for administrative purposes, even before the Turkish period.
• In territories under the Sultans of Delhi, there are references to officials who knew Hindi at the local level.

Impact of Turkish Conquest: 

• The Turkish conquest of Northern India in the 13th century diminished the influence of the Rajput-Brahman alliance and the upper castes.
• With the decline of upper caste dominance, the prestige of Sanskrit diminished, and regional languages spoken at the popular level gained prominence.

Growth of Regional Literature: 

• The rise of non-Brahmanical movements, such as the nathpanthi and various bhakti movements, significantly contributed to the growth of regional literature.
• Before the nathpanthi movement, much of the literature was written in regional languages, including Hindi.
• The nathpanthi movement, which emerged during the 13th and 14th centuries, promoted regional popular languages.

Role of Bhakti Movements: 

• The bhakti movements in North India from the 15th century onwards played a crucial role in the development of regional languages and literature.
• Bhakti saints composed verses in languages understood by the people, using popular idioms, legends, and folk tales.
• They translated or adapted epics, Puranas, and the Bhagavad Gita from Sanskrit into regional languages to make the contents accessible to the people.
• Later, when the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated, local languages, along with Persian, continued to be used for administrative purposes in various regional kingdoms.

Patronage of Regional Languages: 

• Literature in regional languages such as Telugu and Marathi developed under the patronage of rulers like the Vijayanagara kings and the Bahmani kingdom.
• Muslim kings also supported regional languages for literary purposes, such as Nusrat Shah of Bengal, who had the Mahabharata and Ramayana translated into Bengali.
• In many regional kingdoms before the Turkish period, languages like Tamil, Kannada, and Marathi were used for administrative purposes alongside Sanskrit.
• This practice continued under Turkish rule, with records of Hindi-knowing revenue accountants in the Delhi Sultanate.

The Development of Hindi Literature

The Origin and Growth of Urdu Language

• Scholars have proposed various theories regarding the origin of the Urdu language after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
• There are differing opinions on the specific dialect of Hindi that merged with Persian to create Urdu.

Dialects Influencing Urdu:

• Dialects mentioned include Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, Punjabi, and others spoken around Delhi.
• All these dialects played a role in the formation of Urdu, but it's challenging to identify the exact one that combined with Persian.

Emergence of Urdu:

• By the late 14th century, Urdu was emerging as an independent language.
• Like Hindi, its core structure was based on Khari Boli, a mix of various dialects from Delhi and surrounding areas.

Delhi's Role:

• Delhi was a melting pot of different dialects and home to a Persian-speaking ruling class, making it an ideal place for the development of a synthetic language.
• Urdu adopted Persian script and literary traditions while retaining the core structure of Hindi dialects.

Turkish Influence on the Term 'Urdu':

• The word 'Urdu' comes from Turkish, meaning army or camp.
• Initially, Urdu was a makeshift language for communication between the Persian-speaking Turkish elite and local people, including Muslim converts, and had no literary form.

Development of Hindavi:

• Over a century, this new language evolved into a more concrete form known as "Hindavi," as described by Amir Khusrau.
• Hindavi became the foundation for both Hindi and Urdu.

Amir Khusrau's Contribution:

• Amir Khusrau wrote in Hindavi using Persian script, laying the groundwork for Urdu literature.
• In the Deccan region, Urdu took on a standardized literary form and was referred to as Dakhini in the 15th century.

Dakhini Urdu:

• Dakhini Urdu developed under Bahmani rule and thrived in the Bijapur and Golkunda kingdoms.
• Gesu Daraz’s "Miraj-ul Ashiqin" is the earliest known work in Dakhini Urdu.

Names for Urdu:

• Until the 18th century, Urdu was known by various names such as "Hindavi," "Dakhini," "Hindustani," or "Rekhta," which means blending different elements to create something new.

Return of Dakhini Urdu to the North:

• In its developed form, Dakhini Urdu made its way back to northern India and gained popularity during the Mughal era.

Peak of Urdu Literature:

• Urdu literature reached its zenith during the 18th century, a time when the Mughal Empire was in decline.

Amir Khusrau's Perspective on Hindi:

• Amir Khusrau, a renowned Persian poet and writer, also composed in Hindi and Urdu.
• He believed that Hindi was on par with Persian and drew comparisons between Arabic and Hindi grammar and syntax.

Regional Languages in Khusrau's Observations:

• In the early 14th century, Khusrau acknowledged the existence of regional languages and noted their uniqueness in different provinces.
• He mentioned languages like Sindhi, Lahori, Kashmiri, Dogri, Kannada, Telugu, Gujarati, Tamil, Bengali, and various forms of Hindavi.

Significance of Modern Regional Languages:

• Khusrau's observations highlight the emergence of modern regional languages in India, marking a crucial development in linguistic history.
• He did not mention some modern regional languages like Assamese, Oriya, and Malayalam.

Punjabi Literature

Two distinct trends in Punjabi literature (13th-16th century):

• Growth of sufi and bhakti poetry.
• Emergence of heroic ballads and folk literature.

Pioneering contributions to Punjabi poetry by Baba Farid(c. 1173-1265), a Chisti sufi master.
Guru Nanak's hymns(16th century) gave a proper literary form to Punjabi.
Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, incorporated Guru Nanak's hymns into the Adi Granth in 1604.
Guru Nanak's poetry is noted for its chastity of sentiment and variety in style.
Guru Angad, the second Sikh Guru, developed a distinct script for Punjabi called Gurumukhi.

Bengali Literature

Folk songs called charyapads, composed between the 10th and 12th centuries, are the earliest examples of the Bengali language.
The Turkish conquest of Bengal in the mid-13th century led to the decline of Sanskrit and the rise in importance of folk literature.
By the 15th century, three main trends emerged in Bengali literature:

(i) Vaishnav Bhakti Poetry:

• Chandidas(born 1408 CE) was the first great Vaishnava bhakti poet in Bengal.
• Poets Kavindra and Srikaranandi translated the Mahabharata into Bengali verse.
• Vidyapathi composed devotional songs in the Maithili dialect, many of which were later absorbed into Bengali due to the Vaishnava movement.
• Chaitanya and his movement further promoted the growth of Vaishnava literature in Bengali, inspiring many poets, including some who were Muslim.

(ii) Translations and Adaptations of the Epics:

• This trend, starting in the early 15th century, drew inspiration from epics and Sanskrit scriptures.
• Sultans Husain Shah and Nusrat Shah patronized Bengali literature.
• Poets Kavindra and Srikaranandi rendered the Mahabharata into Bengali verse.
• Kritivasa Ojha produced a Bengali adaptation of Valmiki's Sanskrit Ramayana.
• Maladhar Basu adapted the Vaishnava Bhagavata Purana into Bengali as Srikrishnavijaya.
• Kasirama produced a popular Bengali rendering of the Mahabharata.
• These translations and adaptations significantly influenced the cultural and religious life of medieval Bengal.

(iii) Mangala Kavya:

• This trend involved the emergence of Mangala Kavya, sectarian poetical narratives focusing on conflicts among gods and goddesses.
• These narratives also contain humanistic elements, highlighting popular aspirations and sufferings.
• Manika Datta and Mukundrama were notable poets of Mangala Kavya in the later 15th and 16th centuries.

Assamese Literature

Hema Sarasvati (late 13th century):

• First poet of the Assamese language.
• Composed works such as Prahladacharita and Hara-Gauri Samvada.

Contemporary Poet: Harihara Vipra

• Chose episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata for his poetry.

14th Century Centers: Kamata and Cachar

• Became centers for the development of Assamese literature.

Madhava Kundali (14th Century):

• Popularized the story of the Ramayana in Assam by adapting it into a language and idiom accessible to the common people.
• His language was less Sanskritized compared to Hema Sarasvati and Harihara Vipra, making it closer to the vernacular.

Vaishnava Bhakti Movement: Sankaradeva (15th Century)

• Made significant contributions to Assamese literature.
• Kirtana Ghosa: Regarded as the most important Vaishnava religious text in Assamese, a collection of devotional songs primarily composed by Sankaradeva with contributions from others.
• Ankiya Nat: Sankaradeva's dramas based on Purana episodes.
• Bargit (Bragita): A new form of devotional poetry introduced by Sankaradeva.

Madhavadeva (A.D. 1489-1596):

• Disciple of Sankaradeva.
• Composed numerous literary works and enriched the Bargit form of poetry.

Oriya Literature

• In the 13th to 14th centuries, the Oriya language began to take on a literary form.
• Saraladasa, a 14th-century poet, is considered the first great poet of Orissa. He is known for his work, the Oriya Mahabharata.
• The 16th century marked a new phase in Oriya literature with the rise of the Vaishnava bhakti movement, influenced by Chaitanya.
• Many of Chaitanya's followers translated or adapted Sanskrit texts on bhakti into the Oriya language.
• Jagannath Das, a close associate of Chaitanya, became a prominent figure in Oriya literature. His translation of the Bhagavata Purana into Oriya gained widespread popularity.

Marathi literature

Emergence of Literature in Verse Form:

• Marathi literature in verse started to appear in the late 13th century.

Early Marathi Literature and Influences:

• Early Marathi literature was primarily influenced by Saiva Nathpanthis.
• Two significant texts,Viveka Darpana and Gorakhagita,were part of the Nathpanthi tradition.

Mukundaraj and Early Poetry:

• Mukundaraj,a key poet of this era,was also from the Nathpanthi tradition.
• He wrote ‘Vivek Sindhu’ in a clear and popular language.

Mahanubhava Influence:

• The Mahanubhava cult,emerging in the 13th century,also significantly influenced Marathi literature.
• Saint-poets from this cult contributed to early Marathi devotional literature and made advancements in lexicography,commentaries,rhetoric,grammar,and prosody.

Varkari Bhakti Tradition:

• The Varkari bhakti saint-poets further enriched Marathi bhakti literature.
• Jnanadeva(13th century),a key figure in this tradition,wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called Bhavartha Dipika,popularly known as Jnanasvari.
• Namdev(1270-1350),also part of the Varkari tradition,composed numerous Abhangas(short lyrical poems) in Marathi.
• He traveled north, and his verses were later included in the Sikh scripture,Adi Granth.

Contribution of Eknath and Tukaram:

• Two other prominent saint-poets from medieval Maharashtra,Eknath(1548-1600) and Tukaram(1598-1649),also made significant contributions to the growth of Marathi literature during the Mughal period.

Gujarati Literature 

• Both Rajasthani and Gujarati languages originated from ancient Western Rajasthahi.
• The initial phase of Gujarati literature development continued until the mid-fifteenth century, during which two primary literary forms emerged:

Prabhanda (narrative poem):

• This included heroic romances, poetic romances, and long poems called rasas.
• The themes of these poems were a mix of historical events, fiction, popular legends, and Jain mythology.

Muktaka (short poem):

• This form had various types such as phagu (poem about separation), baramasi, and chapo.
• The second phase of Gujarati literature began in the late fifteenth century with the rise of Vaishnava bhakti poetry.
• Narasimha Mehta (1414-1480) was a prominent Gujarati bhakti poet who used his poetry to promote Vaishnava bhakti in Gujarat.

Literature in the languages of South India 

The three South Indian languages - Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu - have a longer literary history than that of the North Indian regional languages.

• Tamil Language: The literary history of the Tamil language dates back to the beginning of the Christian era, making it one of the oldest in India.
• Kannada and Telugu Languages: Similarly, Kannada and Telugu also possess older literary traditions compared to the North Indian regional languages.
• Malayalam Language: Malayalam is the youngest among the South Indian languages. It developed as an independent literary form only in the fourteenth century.

Tamil Literature

Contributions to Tamil Literature Post-Chola Empire:

• The decline of the Chola Empire marked the end of the great age of Tamil literature. However, writers and poets continued to contribute to the literary tradition.
• Villiputtutar, likely a thirteenth-century literary figure, was significant during this period. He translated the Mahabharata into Tamil, known as the Bharatam, which gained popularity among Tamil speakers. Villiputtutar also introduced the practice of incorporating Sanskrit words and literary expressions into Tamil poetry.
• Another notable poet from the same era was Amnaginnatha, who composed the Tiruppagal, a lyrical and devotional work dedicated to the god Murugan.
• This period is also characterized by detailed commentaries produced by Vaishnava scholars. These commentaries were written on literary works from the Sangam age, such as the Tolkappiyam and the Kural. These commentaries are exemplary examples of medieval Tamil prose, known for their clarity and brevity.
• Additionally, another prominent author,Kachiappa Sivachariar, wrote the Kanda-puranam, a work in praise of the god Subramanya.

Telugu Literature

Literature in the Telugu language made significant strides from the 13th century onwards.

During the 13th and 14th centuries, Telugu translations and adaptations of Sanskrit works were produced.

Errapragada(14th century):

• Popularized the Champu genre(a mix of verse and prose).
• Composed the Ramayana in the Champu style.
• Translated parts of the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa into Telugu.

Srinatha(1365-1440):

• Translated Sriharsha’s Naishadha Kavya into Telugu.
• Wrote verses on historical romance, paving the way for classical prabandhas in Telugu literature.

Potana(contemporary of Srinatha):

• Translated the Bhagavata Purana into Telugu.

Krishnadeva Raya(16th century):

• Patron of Telugu literature and poet himself.
• Wrote Amukta Malyada in Telugu.
• Supported many Telugu poets, including Allasani Peddana, who wrote Manu Charita in Telugu.

During this period, Telugu literature saw a growing influence of Sanskrit on the Telugu language.

Kannada Literature

Early Kannada Literature (up to 12th Century):

• Jain writers were the dominant figures in early Kannada literature.

Influence of Virasaivism (12th Century onwards):

• Virasaivism, a popular religious movement, began to significantly influence the people and literature of the Kannada-speaking region from the mid-12th century.

Basava and the Vachanas:

• Basava, the founder of the Virasaiva movement, contributed religious literary works known as Vachanas. These works, along with those of his followers, are crucial to medieval Kannada literature.

13th Century Poets:

• Harisvara and Raghavanka, both Virasaiva poets in the 13th century, created their works in new Kannada styles that later gained popularity.

Bhima Kavi and Basava Purana:

• In the late 14th century, Virasaiva poet Bhima Kavi composed the Basava Purana.

Patronage of Hoysala Rulers:

• The later Hoysala rulers supported many Kannada poets and writers during this period.

Rudra Bhatta and Jagannatha Vijaya:

• Rudra Bhatta wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the champu genre, adapting it from the Sanskrit work Vishnu Purana.

Growth under Vijayanagar Kings (14th to 16th Centuries):

• The period between the 14th and 16th centuries witnessed further growth of Kannada literature under the patronage of the Vijayanagar kings and their feudatories.

Kumara Vyasa and the Mahabharata:

• One of the greatest poets of this period was Kumara Vyasa, who composed the Kannada version of the Mahabharata.

Malayalam Literature

Malayalam: Evolution and Literature:

• Origin: Malayalam is the youngest South Indian language, evolving from a Tamil dialect in the Malabar region.
• Independence: By the 14th century, Malayalam had gained independence from Tamil, influenced by political isolation and foreign linguistic elements.
• Earliest Literature: Initially oral, with songs and ballads. The first written work is Rama Charitam from the 14th century.
• Sanskrit Influence: From the 16th century onwards, Malayalam was significantly influenced by Sanskrit, incorporating many Sanskrit elements.