Painting, Music, Evolution of Composite Culture | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Painting

Painting History in the Sultanate Period:

• The history of painting during the Sultanate period is less clear and less documented compared to architecture.
• There are no surviving examples of painting from the first hundred years of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Illuminated books, which were highly developed in the Islamic world by 1200, are also absent from this period.
• Recent research over the past 20-25 years has revealed new evidence, changing previous scholarly opinions.
• It is now known that both book illumination and murals were created during the Sultanate period.
• There are few examples of court painting from this time, but the new culture brought by the Sultanate rulers began to influence classical Indian styles.
• The traditions of calligraphy, book illumination, and figural murals from the Islamic world were introduced to Delhi by the early Turkish Sultans, flourishing in the 13th and 14th centuries.
• Sultanate painting attempted to blend Persian and Indian traditional styles, evident in scattered works from the age.
• These manuscripts include historical poems and folk tales, characterized by simple scenes and bold color schemes.
• One of the earliest known examples from the 15th century is a copy of the Shahnama, created under Lodi rule, showing similarities to contemporary Jain paintings.
• Delhi Sultanate paintings based on Indian traditions feature groups of people in identical poses, narrow decorative bands, and bright colors unlike earlier muted hues.
• The illustrated manuscript of Niamat Namat from the early 16th century exemplifies the fusion of Persian and Jaina styles.
• Many illustrated manuscripts reflect influences from Jain and Rajasthani painting styles.
• Literary references to murals in this period have been compiled by Simon Digby.
• The earliest reference to murals in the Sultanate period is found in a qasida praising Iltuttnish in 1228, describing human or animal figures on the spandrel of an arch.
• In Tarikh-i Ferozshahi by Afif, a significant reference to painting indicates a tradition of figural painting in Delhi, which Feroz Tughluq sought to ban.
• Nuh Siphr of Amir Khusru mentions painted decorations in open-sided tents, indicating a tradition beyond murals.
• Wall painting tradition persisted in the homes of common people, especially non-Muslims, as evidenced by a 14th-century Hindi poem and an illustrated manuscript depicting painted scenes from the Ramayana.

The Quranic Calligraphy

Calligraphy in the Islamic World:

• Calligraphy was highly esteemed in the Islamic world, used for decoration on stone and paper.
• Calligraphers were ranked above illuminators and painters in the hierarchy of craftsmen.
• The calligraphy of the Quran became a prominent form of book art, with large-scale copies produced.
• The oldest known copy of the Quran, dated 1399 and created in Gwalior, features various ornamental motifs from Iranian and Indian sources.

Geometrical Frontispiece and Delhi Ateliers:

• The geometrical frontispiece of the Quran manuscript reflects the Sultanate style and showcases features of 14th-century Delhi ateliers.
• Work from this period aligns with the Iranian tradition.
• Kufi script was commonly used in headings and inscriptional panels of the Quran.
• Illumination of geometrical frontispieces was a specialty of this school.

15th Century Book Art:

• In the 15th century, under the Saiyyid and Lodi dynasties, book art declined significantly.
• Provincial dynasties took the initiative in manuscript production during this period.

Manuscript Illustration in the Sultanate Period:

• Manuscript illustration from the Sultanate period is a debated topic, with little consensus among scholars on terminology and provenance.
• Despite the existence of illustrated manuscripts in Persian and Awadhi from 1400 until the Mughal era, some were produced at provincial courts.
• A small group of manuscripts, possibly not connected to any court, was created for independent patrons in the Sultanate.
• These manuscripts, attributed to the period 1450-1500, represent a ‘bourgeois’ group.

Examples of Manuscripts:

• Hamzanama: Dating to around 1450, this manuscript depicts the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, a companion of the prophet.
• Chandayan: Datable to 1450-70, it illustrates the romance of two lovers, Laur and Chanda, composed in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi by Maulana Daud of Dalmau near Rai Bareilly.

Discuss the Caurapancashika and Jain styles of paintings

Jain Styles of Paintings:

• Western Indian painting, known as Jaina Painting, is a conservative style of Indian miniature painting found in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Malwa.
• Jainism, similar to how Buddhism influenced Ajanta and Pala arts, was the driving force behind this artistic tradition.
• The Chalukya Dynasty patronized Jainism and ruled over Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Malwa from 961 AD to the 13th century.
• During the 12th to 16th centuries, a vast number of Jain religious manuscripts were commissioned by princes, ministers, and wealthy Jain merchants to earn religious merit.
• The illustrations in these manuscripts feature a style of vigorous distortion, where physical traits like eyes,breasts, and hips are exaggerated.
• Figures are depicted with flat, angular features and protruding eyes, characterized by primitive vitality,vigorous lines, and forceful colors.
• This school is marked by simple, bright colors, conventional figures, and wiry, angular drawing, lacking the naturalism of early Indian wall painting.
• Figures are mostly shown from a frontal view with heads in profile, and the facial type, with a pointed nose, resembles medieval sculpture and wall paintings at Ellora.
• Western Indian painting significantly influenced the development of painting in India, especially in the Rājasthanī schools of western and central India.
• From about 1100 to 1400 AD, palm-leaf was used for manuscripts, later replaced by paper. Popular Jain texts like the Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya-Katha were frequently written and illustrated.
• In the 15th century, Persian painting began to influence Jaina style, evident in Persian facial types and hunting scenes in some manuscripts.
• The introduction of ultramarine blue and gold color in Western Indian manuscripts is also attributed to the influence of Persian painting.

Caurapancasika styles of paintings 

About Caurapancasika (Fifty Stanzas of a Love-Thief):

• Caurapancasika, a love poem written in Sanskrit by the Kashmiri poet Bilhana in the late eleventh century. Bilhana served at the Kalyana court during this time.
• The poem depicts a poet reminiscing about his passionate love affair with a princess from a royal family, as he awaits execution for loving someone of higher status.
• The emotional verses of Caurapancasika inspired a series of paintings in manuscript form, likely created in the 15th and 16th centuries. These paintings were less decorative and anecdotal compared to earlier styles.
• Paintings labeled as Caurapancasika are not always directly linked to the text of the poem.
• The Caurapancasika style of paintings marked a departure from the traditional Jaina style, adopting a more secular approach.
• It is debated where and when the manuscripts in this style were created. The Caurapancasika group of manuscripts likely developed after the technique of turning human heads into strict profile views was mastered.

Characteristics of Caurapancasika style are

Characteristics of Caurapancashika Paintings:

• Color and Style: Flat, intense colors with a focus on profile heads featuring wonderfully pronounced eyes. The backgrounds are bold and in brilliant primary colors, creating a striking contrast.
• Format: Most paintings are in an oblong format with text written on the reverse side. This format is a continuation of the pothi format seen in the Western Indian approach.
• Eye Representation: The Caurapancashika style features a distinctive side view with a single, very large eye, moving away from the protruding eye of the Western Indian style.
• Action Depiction: Occasionally, human figures are depicted in action, a rare occurrence in Indian paintings. The vitality captured in these actions can rival the best examples of Indian art.
• Expressiveness and Color Use: The approach is celebrated for its beauty of expressions, dramatic use of color, and the rich imagination of the painters.

Pothi format 

• Pothis were traditional Indian manuscripts made from dried palm leaves, bound with wooden covers, and preserved in temple libraries called Bhandaras.
• The wooden covers of pothis protected the leaves and were slightly wider than the leaves themselves.
• Since the Pothi format has been used in India since ancient times, the Caurapancashika style cannot be considered its predecessor.
• Instead, the Caurapancashika style is a successor to the Pothi format of the Western-Indian style.

Music 

Mutual Understanding and Integration in Music:

• Trends of mutual understanding and integration are observed in various fields, including fine arts and music.
• Music development during the Delhi Sultanate was overshadowed by architecture and painting.
• The Turks brought rich Arab musical traditions, along with new instruments like the rabab and sarangi.
• Historical documentation of music during this period is scarce, with modern writings often being speculative.
• The 14th century was significant for music in the Delhi Sultanate, with early Sultans likely practicing music.
• Amir Khusrau, a key figure in this era, made lasting contributions to Indian music.
• He introduced new compositions, assimilated different music forms, and innovated musical practices, such as the qawwali mode and the sitar.
• Khusrau’s changes in music had social implications, bridging diverse communities.
• Music was encouraged by rulers like Muhammad Tughlaq and continued to evolve under his successors.
• Distinctive musical styles emerged in regions like Kashmir, influenced by Persian music.
• The patronage of music by various rulers, including the Mughals, highlighted its growing importance.

Evolution of a Composite Culture 

The Impact of Turkish Invasions on India: A Historical Overview:

Understanding the historical context of the Turkish invasions and the subsequent establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India during the 13th century is crucial for grasping the complexities of this transformative period. The invasions marked a significant turning point in India's history, leading to a mix of destruction and cultural integration.

1. The Coming of the Turks and the Delhi Sultanate:

• The arrival of the Turks in India during the 13th century brought about significant changes. Initially, this period was marked by turmoil, with widespread destruction of temples, palaces, and cities.
• Despite the initial chaos, once territories were conquered or submitted, a process of peace and development began. Northern India, under direct Sultanate rule, experienced this gradual development for about 200 years.

2. Cultural Inheritance and Administrative Norms:

• The Turks, having come from Central Asia and embraced Islam, brought with them the Islamic culture of their region. They shared cultural and administrative norms established by the Abbasids, albeit with some adjustments.
• Proud of their Islamic heritage, the Turks contributed to architecture, literature, governance, and science, adopting Persian as the language of administration and culture.

3. Hindu Cultural Continuity:

• Hindus, too, were custodians of a rich cultural tradition that had evolved over millennia. While India lagged in scientific advancements post-5th century, the cultural traditions remained vibrant.
• The period between the 8th and 12th centuries saw significant building activities, especially in temple architecture, with notable constructions in places like Khajuraho, Orissa, Mathura, and Kashi.

4. Philosophical Developments:

• This era also witnessed important philosophical developments, with figures like Sankara influencing Vedanta philosophy and movements centered around love and devotion emerging in South India.
• Contact between Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam had begun before Islam's arrival in India, but intensified after. Despite political and religious differences, a gradual process of mutual adjustment started to unfold.

5. The Dual Nature of Interaction:

• While there were instances of hostility from both sides, such as the bigoted ulema advocating hostility towards Hindus and some Hindus maintaining distance from Muslims, a slow process of rapprochement began.
• This process was evident in architecture, literature, music, and the introduction of Sufism and the Bhakti movement in North India.

6. The Mughal Era and Continued Conflict:

• The 15th to 17th centuries, particularly under the Mughals, saw an acceleration of this process of interaction and integration. However, it is important to note that elements of conflict persisted alongside the rapprochement.
• Different rulers and regions experienced varying degrees of conflict and cooperation, making this a complex and dynamic historical period.