Progress of Science in Colonial India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Scientific and Material Advancement in Europe vs. India

• From the 16th century onwards, Europe began to surpass India in scientific and material advancements.
• The emergence of modern science in Europe reinforced European economic dominance over colonies, where education, science, and research remained underdeveloped.

British Supremacy in India:

• After establishing British supremacy in the Indian subcontinent, the British rulers were excited about the formation and consolidation of a new empire.
• They aimed to gather as much information as possible about India, including its people and resources.

Documentation of India’s Technological Traditions and Resources

• The British documented the best aspects of India’s technological traditions and natural resources that would benefit their employers.
• They quickly understood the necessity of knowledge in geography, geology, and botany of the conquered areas, recognizing the crucial role of science in empire-building.

Feature in the early phase of this period

• Colonial scientists were like jack-of-all-trades, dabbling in multiple fields such as botany, geology, geography, and education. They were good at gathering data but had to rely on scientific institutions in Britain for analysis and conclusions.
• The British invested in botanical, geological, and geographical surveys to gain economic and military advantages, while medical and zoological sciences were neglected.
• Research in physics and chemistry was not a priority as these fields were linked to industrial development, which the British wanted to limit. India was seen mainly as a source of raw materials and a market for British-made products.
• The establishment of scientific bodies and museums was a positive development. Before British rule, India had a weak scientific foundation with no scientific institutions or journals. William Jones and other European intellectuals founded the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784 to promote scientific activity. This was followed by various other societies that published journals comparable to European ones.
• When the British Crown took over in 1858, the groundwork for exploring India’s natural resources was already laid.
• The focus shifted to consolidating gains made by individual efforts.
• To achieve this, new institutions were established and survey organizations were expanded.
• In 1878, the trigonometrical, topographical, and revenue survey branches were combined, with the Revenue Survey gaining prominence.
• Geological explorations were supported for their economic benefits, leading to the creation of the Geological Survey of India in 1851.
• Unlike the Geological Survey or Survey of India, a dedicated organization for botanical explorations was not established.
• The establishment of various scientific departments and institutions required a specialized cadre.The oldest and most significant was the Indian Medical Service, primarily set up to serve the army.
• The sector of agriculture was the most disorganized, despite agriculture being the main source of revenue. The government considered agricultural improvement too complex and left it to private agricultural societies. An Indian Agricultural Service was created in 1906, but it did not develop into a cohesive scientific department due to financial and administrative challenges.

British Attitude Towards Science and Education in Colonial India

• The colonial government showed little interest in promoting scientific research and education in India, focusing instead on immediate practical results.
• Scientific efforts were often ad hoc and local, driven by military or economic needs, with excessive administrative control limiting scientists' independence.
• Science was not prioritized in the educational system, with the charter of 1813 calling for the promotion of scientific knowledge but achieving little due to the indigenous educational system's lack of support.
• In 1835, Macaulay established English as the medium of instruction, further delaying the introduction of science in schools due to his preference for a literary curriculum.
• While some medical and engineering institutions were established, their purpose was mainly to support British-trained professionals rather than foster independent scientific education.
• Ancient Indian universities and medieval Islamic centers of learning, once renowned for their scholarly contributions, did not survive the colonial period.
• The establishment of the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857 marked a shift, but it wasn't until 1870 that Indian universities began to prioritize science education.
• Calcutta University introduced a split B.A. program with literary and science branches, reflecting a growing interest in science.
• However, colonial education fostered passive acceptance of knowledge rather than critical thinking, with English-language books often alienating students from their own culture.
• British educational models were emulated despite India's different social and economic context, aiming to reinforce British dominance.
• While a nominal scientific infrastructure was developed, areas like physics, chemistry and agriculture received little attention unless deemed necessary for colonial interests.
• The period of colonization led to the dilution of India's cultural heritage, scientific tradition, and educational system, replacing them with a tradition of servility and an education system designed to promote subservience rather than free inquiry.

The status of Scientific Research in Colonial India

• In the absence of higher scientific education, scientific research remained an exclusive governmental exercise for a long time.
• It was, therefore, linked to the economic policies pursued by the imperial power.
• A scientist serving the colonial power was supposed to not only discover new economic resources, but also to help in their exploitation.
• In agriculture, it was basically plantation research with emphasis on experimental farms.
• The introduction of new varieties and various problems related to cash crops were key focuses.
• These cash crops included cotton, indigo, tobacco, and tea, which were all to be exported to Britain.
• Next came surveys in geology to exploit mineral resources, again for export as raw material.
• Another major area of concern was health, vital for the survival of the army, planters, and other colonisers.

In spite of difficult conditions and the government’s lukewarm attitude, quite a few scientific works were came out in this period:

• Ronald Ross did original work on the relation between malaria and the mosquito.
• Macnamara worked on cholera, Haffkine on plague and Rogers on kalazar. The famous medical scientist, Robert Koch visited Calcutta to work on cholera.
• Bacteriological laboratories were set up in Bombay, Madras, Coonoor, Kasauli and Mukteswar. This shift towards bacteriological research had one significant result. It led to the growth of clinical treatment, private practice and a booming drug industry.
• However, preventive measures like sanitary reforms, or even supply of drinking water to villages and towns remained neglected.
• In other fields too significant developments took place through the effort of foreign and Indian scientists working in institutions here.

Response of the Local populace:

• The British activities did evoke some response from the local populace, particularly the educated section, who were looking for jobs in the colonial administration and economy.
• A few Indians participated in the officially patronised scientific associations or institutions.
• They often searched for a distinct identity and established institutions, scholarships and facilities of their own.
• Ram Mohun Roy’s petition to Amherst asking for a proper science education became well known.
• Bal Gangadhar Shastri and Hari Keshavji Pathare in Bombay, Master Ramchander in Delhi, Shubhaji Bapu and Onkar Bhatt Joshi in Central Provinces, and Aukhoy Dutt in Calcutta worked for the popularisation of modern science in Indian languages.
• Geography and astronomy were the areas chosen first because, in these fields, the Pauranic myths were considered the strongest.
• Vyas, the author of Srimad Bhagwat, for example, had talked about oceans of milk and nectar.
• This is part of popular myth even now, and this was attacked by these persons.
• For instance, Onkar Bhatt explained that Vyas was only a poet, not a scientist, and his interest was merely to recount the glories of God, so he wrote whatever he fancied.
• Even Urdu poets, devoted mainly to the romances of life, took notice of the western science and technology.
• Hali and Ghalib, for example, talked about the achievements of western civilisation based upon steam and coal power.
• The next logical step from these individual efforts was to give some organisational shape to the growing yearning for modern science.
• In 1864, Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh Scientific Society and called for introduction of technology in industrial and agricultural production.
• Four years later, Syed Imdad Ali founded the Bihar Scientific Society.
• These societies gradually became defunct.
• In 1876, M.L. Sarkar founded the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science.
• This organization was entirely managed by Indians and did not receive any government support or assistance. Sarkar's vision was quite ambitious, aiming for both original research and the popularization of science.
• Over time, the association became a significant center for research in various fields such as optics,acoustics,scattering of light, and magnetism.
• In Bombay, Jamshedji Tata proposed a similar plan for advanced scientific education and research, which eventually led to the establishment of the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore in 1909.
• By the end of the 19th century, there was a growing awareness and interest in science in India, particularly as the movement for freedom from colonial rule was gaining momentum.

Impact of the Freedom Movement

• By the early 1900s, Indian society was beginning to feel the first signs of a desire for freedom from British colonial rule. While people wanted self-rule politically, their economic frustrations led them to insist on using only Indian-made goods.
• The Swadeshi Movement encouraged:
• Promotion of education with a national focus, especially in science and technology.
• Industrialization of India.
• In 1904, an association was formed to promote Scientific and Industrial Education for Indians. Its goal was to send students abroad to study science-based industries.
• During colonial times, the environment in India was not supportive of higher education or research. Indians were only allowed to hold subordinate positions, and even those who excelled abroad were paid less than their European counterparts. This unfair treatment in science sparked a strong reaction from Indians.
• J.C. Bose, a prominent Indian physicist, refused to accept a lower salary for three years. Until the Royal Society recognized his work, his college did not provide him with research facilities and considered his work private. Bose was also one of the first scientists to engage in interdisciplinary research, moving from physics to plant physiology.
• Bose invented the crescograph, a device to measure plant growth. Competing for recognition in British scientific circles was as challenging as battling the absurdities of colonial administration. Bose persisted and succeeded.
• Another Indian scientist, P.C. Ray, faced similar challenges. After returning from England in 1888 with a doctorate in chemistry, he had to wait a year for a temporary assistant professorship and remained in Provincial Service.
• P.N. Bose resigned when he was passed over for the directorship of the Geological Survey in 1903 in favor of a younger colleague.
• These issues were reflected in the political arena. In its third session in 1887, the Indian National Congress addressed the issue of technical education and continued to pass resolutions on it annually.
• K.T. Telang and B.N. Seal criticized the government for providing only lower forms of practical training in the name of technical education. The Indian Medical Service was also heavily criticized.
• In 1893, the Congress passed a resolution urging the government to establish a scientific medical profession in India by opening fields for medical and scientific work to the best talent available, particularly indigenous talent.
• The Congress addressed various issues related to education, agriculture, and mining.
• Two key features of this era were: Many proponents of Swadeshi looked to Japan as a major source of inspiration, especially after Japan's emergence as a strong industrial power and its victory over Russia in 1904-05, which inspired Indians.
• There were also revivalist tendencies, as seen in P.N. Bose's writing of A History of Hindu Civilisation and J.C. Bose giving Sanskrit names to his instruments.
• Science popularizers often tried to show that good aspects of western science were also present in ancient India.
• Despite these cultural constraints, the efforts of this era had a galvanizing effect. Sir Asutosh Mookherjee established a University College of Science in Calcutta, taking advantage of the University Act of 1904, which allowed Indian universities to organize teaching and research.
• Notable scientists such as P.C. Ray, C.V. Raman, S.N. Bose, and K.S. Krishnan taught there. This college, despite financial difficulties, produced physicists and chemists who gained international recognition.
• In contrast, many government scientific organizations staffed by well-paid Europeans had relatively poor contributions.
• Many individuals contributed to putting India on the global scientific map:
• J.C. Bose studied the electric responses of animal and plant tissues to various stimuli.
• S. Ramanujan made significant contributions to number theory.
• P.C. Ray analyzed rare Indian minerals and founded the Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works.
• C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize in 1930 for his research on the scattering of light, and K.S. Krishnan worked on the electric resistance of metals.
• S.N. Bose collaborated with Einstein on the study of elementary particles, leading to Bose-Einstein Statistics.
• D.N. Wadia, Birbal Sahni, P.C. Mahalanobis, and S.S. Bhatnagar made contributions in geology, palynology, statistics, and chemistry, respectively.
• Beyond their individual contributions, these scientists greatly influenced teaching and research guidance.
• Numerous institutes were established, such as the Bose Institute(1917), Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Science (1936), and Birbal Sahni Institute of Palynology, further promoting scientific activity in India.
• The Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) was established in 1914 to foster scientific inquiry and collaboration among scientists across India.
• Initially, scientific discussions happened through official conferences like the Sanitary and Agricultural Conferences.
• The ISCA aimed to strengthen scientific research, promote interaction among scientific communities, and raise awareness about pure and applied sciences.
• Over time, the ISCA has become the largest organization representing scientists and technologists from all disciplines in India.

Post-World War I Developments:

• After World War I, the Indian government recognized the need for scientific and industrial self-reliance.
• The Indian Industrial Commission was set up in 1916 to explore ways to reduce India’s dependence on Britain.
• Although the Commission made broad recommendations for industrial development, few were implemented.
• Requests for new institutions or expansions often faced funding and demand issues.
• Colonial interests often conflicted with nationalist goals during this period.

Debate on Development Approaches:

• In the early 20th century, there was a debate on the best path for India’s development.
• During the Indian Science Congress,Gandhiji's focus on cottage industries was met with differing views.
• P.C. Ray argued that basic education and traditional industries were crucial for scientific progress.
• In contrast, M.N. Saha and the Science & Culture group advocated for large-scale industries.
• The success of socialist experiments in Russia highlighted the potential of science for economic and material progress, influencing Indian leadership towards heavy industrialization and socialism.

National Planning Committee:

• On Saha’s suggestion, the Congress Party prioritized national planning and industrialization.
• In 1938, the National Planning Committee was formed under Jawaharlal Nehru to address various technical subjects, including irrigation,industries,public health, and education.
• The subcommittee on Technical Education, chaired by M.N. Saha, assessed the adequacy of existing institutions in producing technical personnel.

World War II and Its Aftermath:

• World War II (1939-45) and the disruption of the sea route between India and England led to increased industrial capability in India.
• The need for a Central Research Organisation emerged, culminating in the establishment of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1942.
• A.V. Hill, President of the Royal Society, was invited in 1944 to identify research challenges in India as part of post-war reconstruction.
• These developments opened up greater opportunities for Indian scientists in policy-making and management of scientific affairs.
• The foundations of independent India’s science policy and national reconstruction can be traced back to these activities.