Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Movement) & Devendranath Tagore | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833)

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is celebrated as the pioneer of Modern India for his embodiment of a spirit of inquiry, a quest for knowledge, a commitment to broad humanitarian ideals. He was part of the upper-caste gentry whose influence and status were strengthened by the Permanent Settlement and various opportunities presented by colonial rule.

Roy is credited with initiating religious and social reform in India. Renowned poet Rabindranath Tagore acknowledged him as the figure who ushered in the modern era in India. Historian Dr. Macnicol described Roy as the "herald of a new age," emphasizing the lasting impact of the fire he ignited in Indian society.

He served as a crucial link between ancient traditions and modern ideals, bridging gaps between:

• caste divisions and universal humanity
• superstition and scientific reasoning
• despotism and democratic principles
• rigid customs and progressive change
• complex polytheism and a simpler, albeit vague, theism

Raja Ram Mohan Roy: A Pioneer of Religious Reform in India

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a prominent figure born during a time when practices like blind faith, sacrificial rituals, caste division, idol worship had deeply affected the Hindu religion.

Early Influences and Beliefs:

• He was influenced by rationalism from his early education in Persian and Arabic literature during the eighteenth century.
• After studying Vedantic monism and moving to Calcutta in 1815, he encountered Christian Unitarianism, which shaped his beliefs.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy aimed to revive the concept of the Unity of Godhead within Hinduism.

Liberal Religious Views:

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy held liberal religious views, believing in the fundamental truth and unity of all religions.
• He was recognized as a significant investigator in the science of comparative religions, asserting that all religions essentially convey a common message and that their followers are all brothers.

Reforming Hinduism:

• Motivated by intellectual influences, he sought to challenge the missionary claims of Christian superiority by reforming Hinduism based on reason and returning to its purest form as outlined in the Vedanta texts.
• He criticized practices such as idolatry, priestcraft, polytheism, translating the Upanishads into Bengali to illustrate that ancient Hindu scriptures advocated monotheism.
• His reform efforts were inspired by the monotheism of Islam and the moral principles of Christianity.

Founding of Societies:

• His initial effort was the establishment of the Atmiya Sabha, which focused on the free dissemination of religious truth and discussions on theological subjects from 1815 to 1819.
• Subsequently, he founded another organization that became known as the Brahma Samaj on August 20, 1828, with Tarachand Chakravarty as its secretary.
• The Brahma Samaj faced opposition from the orthodox Dharma Sabha, led by Bhavani Charan Banerjee, which countered Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s Bengali Weekly, Samvada Kaumudi.

Defense and Critique of Hinduism:

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy defended Hinduism against missionary criticism while aiming to cleanse it of abuses that had emerged over time.
• He criticized idolatry, supporting his stance with references from the Vedas, reinterpreted Hindu doctrines to find a spiritual basis for his humanitarian beliefs in the Upanishads.

Cultural Synthesis and Critique of Christianity:

• Although he rejected Christianity and denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, he appreciated European humanism and sought to create a cultural synthesis between Eastern and Western thought.
• He admired the moral and philosophical teachings of Jesus and wished to integrate them into Hinduism.
• Despite his admiration for certain aspects of Christianity, he remained critical of concepts like the Trinity and miracle stories.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy robustly defended Hindu religion and philosophy against the misguided attacks of missionaries.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy as a Social Reformer

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a prominent social reformer who actively opposed various social evils and forms of oppression in society.

Opposition to Sati:

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a strong advocate against the practice of Sati, where widows were forced to self-immolate on their husbands' funeral pyres.
• He wrote articles in newspapers and delivered speeches at public meetings to raise awareness against this cruel practice.
• Roy would visit cremation grounds in Calcutta, attempting to dissuade relatives from carrying out Sati by engaging them in conversation.
• He frequently wrote letters to Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India, urging legal action against those who supported or encouraged the practice of Sati.
• By referencing ancient scriptures, he argued that Hinduism itself opposed the practice of Sati.

When conservative Hindus petitioned Parliament to uphold Sati, Raja Ram Mohan Roy countered their petition by advocating for the abolition of this inhumane custom.

• His efforts contributed significantly to Governor-General Bentinck's decision to prohibit Sati in 1829 through a government regulation.
• This regulation was upheld despite a petition from the anti-abolitionist Dharma Sabha to the Privy Council in 1830.

Advocacy for Widow Remarriage:

• In addition to opposing Sati, Raja Ram Mohan Roy also promoted widow remarriage.
• He believed that the suppression of Sati would be meaningless if widow remarriage was not encouraged.
• Roy extensively quoted from Vedic literature to elevate the status of Hindu women and argued for their right to inherit property.
• He condemned polygamy, emphasizing that respect for women could only be ensured by abolishing this practice.

Promotion of Education:

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy recognized that the lack of education among Indians made them susceptible to superstitions and pointless rituals.
• To combat these issues, he supported the introduction of Western education and literature in India.
• He assisted Lord William Bentinck in promoting English literature and sciences as a means to uplift Indian society.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Advocate of Modern Education

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a key figure in promoting modern education in India, viewing it as a crucial tool for spreading contemporary ideas throughout the country.

In 1817, David Hare, who had initially come to India as a watchmaker in 1800 but dedicated his life to advancing modern education, established the renowned Hindu College. Raja Ram Mohan Roy provided enthusiastic support to Hare in this endeavor and other educational initiatives.

Roy also funded his own English school in Calcutta starting in 1817, where subjects like mechanics and the philosophy of Voltaire were taught. In 1825, he founded the Vedanta College, offering courses in both Indian knowledge and Western social and physical sciences.

He was committed to making Bengali a medium for intellectual discourse in Bengal, compiling a Bengali grammar and helping to develop a modern and elegant prose style for the language through his translations, pamphlets, journals.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy as a Pioneer of Political Agitation

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was also a prominent figure in advocating for political reform and agitation in India. He believed that the British presence in India was divinely ordained and that they had a specific mission to fulfill in the country. While he supported the idea of Indians gaining political rights, he argued that these rights should only be granted to those who were capable of exercising them. This perspective reflected his advocacy for a gradual and steady process of political reform in India.

Roy was particularly focused on creating the essential conditions for political awakening in India. He supported the introduction of English education, believing it would facilitate the influx of English liberal and democratic ideas into Indian society. He played a significant role in the establishment of the Hindu College in 1819, aimed at educating Indians along modern lines. Additionally, he assisted figures like Alexander Duff and John Wilson in starting English schools.

His demands included the Indianization of superior services, the separation of the executive and judiciary, trial by jury, judicial equality between Indians and Europeans. Roy was a strong advocate for freedom of speech and expression, condemning the Press Regulations of 1823 and actively campaigning against them. He even submitted a memorial to the Supreme Court regarding this issue.

Roy was a pioneer in public agitation on political matters, condemning the exploitative practices of Bengal zamindars that impoverished peasants. He demanded the permanent fixation of maximum rents paid by actual cultivators, protested against attempts to impose taxes on tax-free lands, called for the abolition of the Company’s trading rights. Influenced by English philosophers like Bacon and Bentham, he sought reforms in the administrative system and became the first Indian consulted by the British Parliament on Indian affairs, providing evidence before a select committee of the British House of Commons.

The Brahmo Samaj, which he founded, also contributed to fostering national unity among Indians by glorifying ancient Indian culture and instilling confidence in their own religion, indirectly participating in the resurgence of Indian nationalism.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s Journalism

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is recognized as a pioneer of Indian journalism. He was a well-read individual, proficient in various Oriental languages such as Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, as well as European languages including English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew. His extensive studies liberated him from the prevalent bigotry in Bengali society.

Roy published journals in different languages including Bengal, Persian, Hindi, English with the aim of disseminating scientific, literary, political knowledge. He sought to educate public opinion on current issues and represent popular demands and grievances before the Government.

In 1821, he established the first press in India and initiated the first vernacular paper, Sambad Kaumudi.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s Internationalism

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a strong advocate of internationalism and believed in the importance of cooperation among nations. He took a keen interest in global events and supported the causes of liberty, democracy, nationalism, while opposing injustice, oppression, tyranny in all forms.

For instance, the news of the failed Revolution in Naples in 1821 deeply saddened him, leading him to cancel his social engagements. Conversely, he celebrated the success of the Revolution in Spanish America in 1823 by hosting a public dinner. He also condemned the harsh conditions in Ireland under the oppressive regime of absentee landlordism and publicly declared his intention to emigrate from the British Empire if Parliament failed to pass the Reform Bill.

By aligning himself with individuals and groups advocating for the freedom of the country and the greatness of India, Raja Ram Mohan Roy demonstrated his stature as a patriotic statesman.

Brahma Samaj

The Brahmo Samaj was the first modern reform movement in India, significantly influenced by Western ideas. It was founded by Rammohan Roy, who established the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which later became the Brahmo Samaj.

Key Developments

• Rammohan Roy initially founded the Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta in 1815. This organization eventually evolved into the Brahmo Sabha in 1828.
• The Brahmo Samaj became a prominent religious movement among the middle-class educated Bengalis, centered on the principle of monotheism.

Core Beliefs

• Rammohan Roy aimed to revive the concept of the unity of God in Hinduism. He embraced the Upanishadic idea of one God, describing God as shapeless, invisible, omnipresent, omnipotent, the guiding spirit of the universe.
• The Trust Deed of 1830 outlined the Brahmo Samaj's purpose as the worship of the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being, the Author and Preserver of the Universe.
• The Brahmo Samaj advocated for:
  (i) Belief in one God
  (ii) Love for mankind and service to humanity as the highest goals
  (iii) Opposition to idol worship
  (iv) Elimination of priesthood and sacrifices
  (v) Worship through prayers, meditation, readings from the Upanishads
  (vi) Promotion of charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue, unity among people of all religions

Rammohan Roy's Vision

• Rammohan Roy did not intend to create a new religion. His goal was to cleanse Hinduism of harmful practices. He remained a devout Hindu throughout his life, even wearing the sacred thread.

Challenges and Decline

• The Brahmo Samaj initially appealed mainly to intellectuals and educated Bengalis in urban areas.
• Orthodox Hindus, led by Raja Radhakant Deb, formed the Dharma Sabha to oppose the Brahmo Samaj.
• After Rammohan Roy's death in 1833, the Brahmo Samaj lacked strong leadership, leading to a decline in its influence.

Devendra Nath Tagore (1817-1905)

Leadership of the Brahmo Samaj:
After the time of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj was led by Devendra Nath Tagore, who improved the organization and consistency of the movement.

Devendranath Tagore's Contributions

• Devendranath Tagore revitalized the Brahmo Samaj, giving it a clear direction and structure. He became a member of the Samaj in 1842.
• Before joining the Samaj, Tagore led the Tattvabodhini Sabha, founded in 1839, which focused on the pursuit of spiritual truth.

Tattvabodhini Sabha

• Established by Devendranath Tagore in 1839 to promote Rammohan’s ideals independently of the Brahmo Samaj.
• Countered the spread of Christianity in India and promoted Vedantism.
• Emphasized the importance of indigenous language and culture.
• Founded the Tattvabodihini Press in 1843.
• Launched the Tattvabodhini Patrika, a journal for spreading the Sabha's ideas.

Association with Brahmo Samaj:

• The informal connection between the two Sabhas strengthened the Brahmo Samaj by increasing its membership and focus.
• Within Hinduism, the Brahmo Samaj acted as a reformist movement. Outside of Hinduism, Tagore strongly opposed Christian missionaries who criticized Hindu practices and rituals.

Expansion and Practices

• Under Tagore's leadership, branches of the Samaj were established in various locations throughout Bengal.
• He condemned idol worship and discouraged the practice of pilgrimages.

Split and Emergence of Brahma Samaj of India

• Over time, the Samaj split, leading to the formation of the Brahma Samaj of India under Keshav Chandra Sen, who had more radical views on social reforms.

Keshab Chandra Sen

• In the 1860s, the Brahmo Samaj movement was expanded beyond the elite circles of Calcutta into the district towns of East Bengal by Bijoy Krishna Goswami and Keshub Chandra Sen.
• Goswami connected Brahmoism with the popular Vaishnavism tradition, while Sen aimed to reach a broader audience, including non-Westernized Bengalis in the eastern Gangetic plains and beyond Bengal.

Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahmo Samaj:

• Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1858 and was appointed as Acharya by Tagore. His energy and eloquence helped popularize the movement.
• Under Keshab’s influence, branches of the Samaj were established outside Bengal, including in U.P.,Panjab, Bombay, Madras, other towns.
• By 1865, there were 54 branches in Bengal itself.

Keshab Sen's Contributions:

• Keshab Sen made significant contributions to the Brahmo movement, including:
• Missionary Activities: He expanded the reach of the movement through missionary efforts.
• Social Reforms: Keshab introduced a focus on social reforms with a radical approach, addressing issues such as:
• Caste System: He criticized the caste system.
• Women’s Rights: He emphasized women’s rights.
• Widow Remarriage: He promoted widow remarriage.
• Inter-Caste Marriages: He advocated for inter-caste marriages.
• Caste Status of Preachers: He raised concerns about the caste status of Brahmo preachers, a position previously reserved for Brahmans.

Rift in the Brahmo Movement:

• Keshab’s radicalism led to a rift within the Brahmo movement.
• Under Keshab, the Samaj distanced itself from Hindu traditions, incorporating religious scriptures from various sects, including Christians, Muslims, Parsis, into Brahmo Samaj meetings.
• Debendranath viewed these changes as too radical and dismissed Keshab from the Acharya position in 1865.
• The schism was essentially between Keshab’s followers, who prioritized social progress and reform, Debendranath’s followers, who wanted to maintain ties with Hindu society.
• Keshab and his followers left the parent body in 1866 and established the Brahmo Samaj of India, while Debendranath’s group retained identity as the Adi (original) Brahmo Samaj.

Significance of the Rift:

• The rift reflected the ongoing dilemmas of Indian modernization, balancing roots in Indian traditions with modern ideals.
• It was more about an identity crisis than a fundamental ideological difference.
• Some Brahmos wanted to separate from Hinduism, while others sought to integrate within Hindu traditions.
• The crisis intensified with the passage of the Brahmo Marriage Act in 1872, which legalized inter-caste and widow marriages for Brahmos but required parties to declare themselves non-Hindus.
• The act was unpopular, Keshab later criticized it for promoting “Godless marriages” and aligned more closely with Hindu ascetic Ramakrishna Paramahansa.

Second Split in Keshab's Brahmo Samaj

• Some of Keshab's close disciples began to view him as an incarnation, a belief that was not shared by his more progressive followers.
• Keshab started facing accusations of authoritarianism from within his group.
• These factors contributed to a significant rift within Keshab's Brahmo Samaj in 1878.
• Throughout his life, Keshab Chandra advocated for a minimum marriage age for Brahmos but did not adhere to his own principles.
• In 1878, Keshab arranged the marriage of his thirteen-year-old daughter to a minor Hindu Maharaja of Cooch-Bihar, following orthodox Hindu rituals.
• He justified this decision by claiming it was the will of God and that he acted on divine intuition.
• Many of Keshab's followers were appalled by his actions, which contradicted the fundamental tenets of the Samaj, leading them to establish a new organization called the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj.
• In 1881, Sen introduced his Naba Bidhan (New Dispensation) and began moving towards the establishment of a new universalist religion.
• However, by this time, the Brahmo movement had been weakened by successive ideological rifts and organizational divisions, reducing it to a small elite group.
• Ultimately, the movement succumbed to a neo-Hindu revivalist campaign that emphasized Hindu identity in relation to the West, rather than reform.

Contribution of Brahmo Samaj

• The Brahmo Samaj has played a significant role in the Indian Renaissance.
• H.C.E. Zacharias states that Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj are the starting points for various reform movements in Hindu religion, society, politics in modern India.
• The Brahmo Samaj provided a way out for the intellectual minds that were disconnected by Christian propaganda.
• In religious reform, the significance of Brahmo Samaj lies in what it discarded from old Hindu beliefs rather than what it retained.
• The Brahmo Samaj overall contributed by:
• Discarding faith in divine Avatars.
• Denying any scripture's ultimate authority over human reason and conscience.
• Denouncing polytheism and idol-worship.
• Criticizing the caste system.
• Taking no definite stand on the doctrine of Karma and transmigration of the soul, leaving it to individual Brahmos to decide.
• In social reform, Brahmo Samaj influenced Hindu society by:
• Attacking dogmas and superstitions.
• Condemning the Hindu prejudice against going abroad.
• Working for women's respectable status in society, condemning sati, advocating against the purdah system, discouraging child marriages and polygamy, promoting widow remarriage, educational facilities.
• Attacking casteism and untouchability, though with limited success.
• Towards the late 19th century, Brahmo reform initiatives faced powerful challenges from various religious movements, some of which, like the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda movement, also emphasized personal god and social reform.

The Brahmo Ideas in Maharashtra (Prathana Samaj)

Background of the Reform Movement in Western India:

In western India, the reform movement emerged in the early nineteenth century through two distinct approaches.

Orientalist Approach:

• One approach was the Orientalist method, which involved the exploration and translation of ancient Sanskrit texts to rediscover the glories of Indian civilization. Notable scholar-reformers in this effort included T. Telang, V.N. Mandalik, Professor R.G. Bhandarkar.

Social Reform Approach:

• The other trend represented a more direct method of social reform, targeting institutions such as the caste system and the prohibition of widow remarriage.
• Individuals like Mehtaji Durgaram Mancharam, Karsondas Mulji, Dadoba Pandurang were involved in organizations like the Manav Dharma Sabha (founded in 1844) and the Paramhansa Mandali (founded in 1849).

Paramhansa Mandali:

• The Paramhansa Mandali, the first socio-religious organization in Maharashtra, was established in 1849 by Dadoba Pandurang and Durgaram Mehtaji.
• Initially a secret organization, it advocated belief in one God, the abolition of caste distinctions, promoted women’s education and widow remarriage.
• The Mandali organized initiation ceremonies that involved breaking caste rules, such as eating bread baked by a Christian and drinking water from a Muslim.
• In 1867, it was reorganized as the Prathana Samaj under the guidance of K.C. Sen, with Atmaram Pandurang as its leader.

Influence of Keshub Chandra Sen:

• Keshub Chandra Sen, a Bengali Brahmo missionary, made two influential visits to Bombay in 1864 and 1867.
• His visits significantly impacted the reform movement in the region.
• As a direct consequence of his influence, the Prarthana Samaj (Prayer Society) was founded in Bombay in 1867.

Western Education and Reform:

• During this period, Western education had gained traction in Maharashtra and Gujarat, fostering a critical core group eager for reform.
• The Prathana Samaj, inspired by Keshub Chandra Sen's visits, emerged as a key player in the reform movement, following the iconoclastic tradition of the Derozians in Bengal.
• To avoid direct confrontation with the wider community, the early efforts of the Prathana Samaj operated with a level of secrecy.
• However, the revelation of its membership in 1860 led to its decline, with limited achievements to its credit.

Maharashtra during the 1860s

Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra (1860s):

• In the 1860s, a reformist group emerged in Maharashtra under the influence of Keshub Chandra Sen.
• Some of Sen’s followers in Bombay established the Prarthana Samaj in 1867.
• The movement began with a secret meeting called Paramhamsa Mandali, initiated by Atmaram Pandurang, who aimed to discuss the negative impacts of casteism and idolatry. The Prarthana Samaj maintained a connection with the Brahmo Samaj.

Foundation and Leadership:

• In 1867, under Keshub's guidance, the theistic society Prarthana Samaj was founded in Bombay, led by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang.
• Although Atmaram Pandurang was the founder president, the driving force behind the Samaj was Mahadev Gobind Ranade, who joined in 1870, with support from Bhandarkar and N.G. Chandavarkar. K. T. Telang, a regular attendee, never became a member.
• The leading figures in the organization were Western-educated Marathi Brahmins.

Approach and Beliefs:

• In Bombay, followers of the Prarthana Samaj saw themselves not as a new sect but as a movement within Hinduism.
• Their approach was non-confrontational, relying on education and persuasion rather than conflict with Hindu orthodoxy.
• Similar to the Brahmo movement, the Prarthana Samaj preached monotheism, rejected idolatry, priestly authority, caste distinctions. Over time, it also integrated aspects of the Maharashtrian bhakti tradition.

Social Reform and Activities:

• The Prarthana Samaj, unlike the Brahmos, did not develop a distinct sectarian identity but became a foundation for the liberal nationalist movement in western India. It focused primarily on social reform and social work.
• The Samaj believed that true love for God was expressed through service to children, regardless of social or religious distinctions. Its only religious tenet was faith in a single, all-powerful, loving God (monotheism). While it did not reject the Vedas or Upanishads, it emphasized Bhakti (devotion).
• The two main aims of the society were rational worship and social reforms.

Focus Areas of Social Reform:

• The Prarthana Samaj focused on four main areas of social reform:
• Disapproval of the caste system
• Raising the age of marriage for both males and females
• Widow remarriage
• Women’s education

Educational and Social Initiatives:

• The Samaj set up various initiatives, including:
• Night schools and reading rooms for working people
• Depressed Classes Mission for the upliftment of depressed classes
• Ladies’ Association for girls’ education
• Orphanage and Foundling Asylum at Pandharpur
• Social Service League, founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi in Bombay, aimed at improving conditions of life and work for the masses
• Deccan Education Society
• Subodh Patrika, a publication to spread the teachings of the society

Avoidance of Western Rationalism

• The Prarthana Samaj avoided the influence of Western Rationalism and Secularism under the guidance of Sir R.G. Bhandarkar, a prominent Sanskrit scholar, Justice M.G. Ranade, a central figure in the Renaissance in western India.

Prominent Leaders:  Key figures in the Prarthana Samaj included:

• Justice Mahadev Govinda Ranade(1842–1901)
• R.G. Bhandarker(1837-1925)
• N.G. Chandavarkar(1855-1923)
• Ramkrishna Gopal
• Narayan Ganesh
• Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
• K.T. Telang

Distinction from Brahmo Movement:

• The Prarthana Samaj distinguished itself from the Brahmo movement in Bengal through its cautious approach, contrasting with the more confrontational stance of the Bengali Brahmos.
• Ranade noted the movement's goal in Bombay Presidency was not to sever ties with society but to gradually implement reforms without disrupting the social structure.
• Modernization was aimed to be integrated within the cultural framework of tradition, avoiding a sharp break.

Expansion and Influence:

• The gradualist approach of the Prarthana Samaj made it more acceptable to the broader society.
• Branches were established in Poona, Surat, Ahmedabad, Karachi, Kirkee, Kolhapur, Sarara.
• The movement also spread to South India, led by Veerasalingam Pantulu, with eighteen branches in the Madras Presidency by the early twentieth century.

Confrontation with Swami Dayanand Saraswati:

• However, this cautious approach led the Prarthana Samaj to face its first crisis when Swami Dayanand Saraswati visited Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1875, offering a more radical and assertive religious movement.
• A faction within the Samaj, led by P. Kelkar, was drawn to Dayanand's Aryan ideology and separated from the Prarthana Samaj.
• Although this dissident group eventually rejoined, it marked the beginning of a different type of religious politics in western India, characterized more by cultural chauvinism than reformism.

Other Organizations:

• Another organization, the Vidhawa Vivah Uttejaka Mandal, was founded by Vishnu Parshuram Shastri Pandit in 1865, advocating for widow remarriage. He set an example by marrying a widow himself in 1875.

Brahmo Samaj in South India

Expansion of Brahmo Samaj in Madras State:

A number of Brahmo Samaj centers were established in the Madras State, reflecting the growing influence of the movement in the region.

Keshub Sen's Influence:

• During his visit to Madras, Keshub Sen successfully converted several South Indian intellectuals to Brahmoism.
• These intellectuals later formed the Ved Samaj, which was transformed into a Brahmo organization under Sen's influence.

Reformers and the Brahmo Influence:

• Intellectuals like Sridharalu Naidu were active in writing against social issues such as the caste system, polygamy, child marriage.
• Naidu played a crucial role in reorganizing the Ved Samaj into a more dynamic and active reformist organization.
• The Brahmo Samaj also influenced other reformers like Pantulu, who established similar organizations to promote social reforms.
• Sivanath Shastri and Bipin Pal, prominent figures in the reform movement, acknowledged Pantulu's connections with the Brahmos and their shared goals.
• Pantulu set up an organization in Rajahmundry, a city visited by Shastri and Pal in the 1870s, to advocate for widow remarriage.

Rajahmundry Social Reform Association:

• Founded by Virsalingam Pantulu in 1878.
• Focused on promoting widow remarriage and addressing social issues.

Servants of India Society:

• Established by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905.
• Implemented various welfare programs and aimed at training national missionaries for the free service of India.

Dayal Singh Trust in Punjab:

• In Punjab, the Dayal Singh Trust aimed to spread Brahmo ideas by establishing Dayal Singh College in Lahore in 1910.