Vijayanagara Empire | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The Rise of Vijayanagar and Bahmanid Kingdoms (14th Century Onwards):

• After the decline of the Delhi Sultanate, the Vijayanagar and Bahmanid kingdoms rose to prominence in southern India.
• These kingdoms dominated the region south of the Vindhyas for over 200 years.

Stable Governance and Economic Growth:

• Despite frequent conflicts between them,both kingdoms maintained law and order within their territories.
• They provided stable governments that fostered the growth of trade and commerce.
• Many rulers focused on agricultural development, built cities with impressive architecture, and supported art and culture.

Territorial States in South India:

• By the mid-14th century,two large territorial states had emerged in South India, contrasting with the situation in North India.
• However, by the late 15th century, the Bahmanid kingdom began to break apart, and the Vijayanagar empire dissolved later, especially after its defeat at the Battle of Talikota in 1565.

European Influence: The Portuguese Arrival:

• During this period, the Portuguese entered the Asian scene, leveraging their naval strength to establish dominance over the seas and surrounding areas.
• They aimed to capture overseas trade and expand their influence.

Vijayanagara Empire (no need to remember, just for reference) Sangama dynasty

Harihara Raya I (1336–1356):

• First ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Bukka Raya I (1356–1377):

• Expanded the empire and strengthened its administration.

Harihara Raya II (1377–1404):

• Continued the expansion and consolidation of the empire.

Virupaksha Raya (1404–1405):

• Had a short reign.

Bukka Raya II (1405–1406):

• Also had a brief rule.

Deva Raya I (1406–1422):

• Noted for military conquests and administrative reforms.

Ramachandra Raya (1422):

• Ruler for a very short period.

Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya (1422–1424):

• Had a brief reign.

Deva Raya II (1424–1446):

• Known for his strong leadership and military prowess.

Mallikarjuna Raya (1446–1465):

• Oversaw a period of stability and growth.

Virupaksha Raya II (1465–1485):

• Had a long and stable reign.

Praudha Raya (1485):

• Ruler for a very short time.

Saluva dynasty

Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya (1485–1491):

• Established the Saluva dynasty and ruled for several years.

Thimma Bhupala (1491):

• Had a very brief reign.

Narasimha Raya II (1491–1505):

• Continued to strengthen the empire.

Tuluva dynasty

Tuluva Narasa Nayaka (1491–1503):

• Strengthened the empire further.

Vira Narasimha Raya (1503–1509):

• Noted for his contributions to the empire.

Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529):

• One of the most famous rulers, known for his conquests and administration.

Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542):

• Continued the legacy of his predecessor.

Venkata I (1542):

• Had a very brief reign.

Sadasiva Raya (1542–1570):

• Ruler during a significant period of the empire.

Aravidu dynasty

Aliya Rama Raya (1542–1565):

• Noted for his military campaigns.

Tirumala Deva Raya (1565–1572):

• Continued to lead the empire.

Sriranga I (1572–1586):

• Oversaw a stable period.

Venkata II (1586–1614):

• Strong ruler during this time.

Sriranga II (1614):

• Had a brief reign.

Rama Deva Raya (1617–1632):

• Noted for his contributions during his rule.

Venkata III (1632–1642):

• Continued the legacy of the empire.

Sriranga III (1642–1646):

• Last ruler of the dynasty.

The Vijayanagar Empire—its Nature and Conflict with the Bahmani Kingdom

Origin of the Sangama Dynasty:

• The Sangama dynasty, which founded the Vijayanagara Empire, was established by brothers Harihara I(also known as Vira Harihara or Hakka Raya) and Bukka Raya I.
• While their role in the kingdom's foundation is widely accepted, the early origins of their family are unclear.
• Tradition suggests they were five brothers who were feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later served the ruler of Kampili in modern Karnataka, eventually rising to the position of ministers.

Tradition and Rebellion:

• When Kampili was conquered by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the brothers were captured, sent to Delhi as prisoners, and converted to Islam.
• However, during a rebellion against Turkish rule in Kampili, they forsook their new faith and joined the rebellion.

Controversies:

• Some historians dispute the traditional account, arguing there is little evidence of the brothers serving at Warangal or being captured and converted.
• They suggest that Harihara and Bukka were part of a group of 75 nayaks of Karnataka who rebelled against Turkish rule and belonged to a strong Shaivite family.

Administration and Influence:

• The Vijayanagar rulers built their administration by drawing from Tamil traditions of Chola rule and Telugu and Kannada traditions of the Kakatiyas and Hoysalas.
• This indicated that they were not merely provincial leaders but represented the entire southern region of India.

Post-Tughlaq South India:

• Following the collapse of Tughlaq rule, South India experienced a complex situation with the survival of old kingdoms like the Hoysalas of Mysore and the rise of new principalities.
• Significant new principalities included the Sultans of Madurai, the Valema rulers of Warangal, and the Reddis of Telingana.
• Later, the Bahmani kingdom emerged to the north of the Vijayanagara kingdom.

Expansion and Conquest:

• In this fragmented environment, Harihara and his brothers seized the opportunity for expansion.The Hoysala kingdom was fully absorbed into Vijayanagara territory.
• A protracted struggle against the Sultanate of Madurai ensued, which was eventually defeated by 1377.

Establishment of Vijayanagara:

• Harihara established a new capital called Vijayanagara on the river Tungabhadra, traditionally believed to be on the advice of the sage Vidyaranya.
• However, another tradition suggests that Bukka, who succeeded Harihara around 1356 and ruled until 1377, was responsible for the city's establishment.

Conflict with the Bahmani Sultans:

• The Vijayanagara Empire faced the rising power of the Bahmani Sultans to the north.
• The Bahmani kingdom, founded in 1347 by Alauddin Hasan, an Afghan noble, had its own legends of origin.
• Initially known as Hasan Gangu, the founder sought to elevate his family's status by tracing descent from Iranian heroes and adopting the title Bahman Shah, from which the kingdom derived its name.

Areas of Conflict:

• The interests of the Vijayanagara rulers and the Bahmani sultans clashed over three main areas:
• Tungbhadra Doab(Raichur Doab): A region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, rich in resources and historically contested.
• Krishna-Godavari Delta: Fertile land crucial for agriculture and trade.
• Marathwada Country: Important for control of the Konkan, with the port of Goa being strategically significant.

Military Conflicts:

• Military conflict between Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms was frequent, with both sides emphasizing military strength.
• The conflict was often portrayed in religious terms, with Vijayanagara rulers sometimes employing Muslim horsemen despite claiming to defend Hindu interests.

Religious Dimension:

• The religious aspect intensified the conflict, leading to widespread devastation and loss of life.
• Both sides committed atrocities in the name of religion, including sacking towns and enslaving populations.

Early Battles and Treaties:

• The battle for the Tungbhadra doab began in 1336 when Bahmani forces captured Raichur, but Harihara recovered it the following year.
• Warfare continued in cycles, with notable events such as Bukka's war in 1367 to reclaim lost territories.
• Both sides used artillery, with significant casualties on both sides.
• A treaty was eventually established, restoring the old boundaries and promising to spare unarmed inhabitants in future conflicts.

Expansion Under Harihar II:

• The elimination of the Sultan of Madurai allowed Harihar II(1377-1404) to pursue expansion in the north-east and west.
• Vijayanagara aimed to assert control over Hindu principalities in the north-east, competing with the Bahmani sultans and the rulers of Orissa.
• The Bahmani Sultan had previously established boundaries, including Golconda, and promised not to encroach further into Warangal.
• For over 50 years, the Bahmani kingdom and Warangal maintained an alliance that hindered Vijayanagara's expansion in the Tungbhadra doab.

Stalemate and Shifting Fortunes:

• The battles between Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis resulted in a stalemate, with territorial control fluctuating between the two sides.
• The ongoing conflict and changing alliances shaped the political landscape of South India during this period.

Sangama Dynasty

Harihara II (1377–1404 CE):

• Harihara II, succeeding Bukka, expanded the empire's reach into southern India.
• He successfully conquered coastal Andhra, taking control from Nellore to Kalinga.
• Harihara II also conquered key regions such as Addanki,Srisailam, and much of the territory south of the Krishna River.
• He seized important Indian ports including Goa,Chaul, and Dabhol.
• Despite challenges from the Bahmani-Warangal alliance, Harihara II successfully retained control over Belgaum and Goa.
• He even launched an expedition north of Sri Lanka.
• Harihara II ruled from Vijayanagara, now known as Hampi.

Bukka (1356–1377 CE):

• Bukka, the younger brother of Harihara I, expanded the territory by defeating the Warangal king and taking over the eastern part of the Deccan.
• He also conquered the western Deccan, establishing control over important regions such as Goa,Chaulp, and Dabhol.
• During his rule, he faced challenges from the Bahmani Sultanate, which was a powerful new state in the Deccan.
• Despite these challenges, he was able to expand the kingdom further south, reaching the Malabar Coast.
• Bukka also established the city of Mysore, which became an important center in southern India.
• He was known for his strong administration and efforts to consolidate the empire.
• Bukka’s reign was significant in setting the foundation for the later expansion and prosperity of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Harihara I (1336–1356 CE):

• Harihara I, along with his brother Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire around 1336 CE, establishing its capital at Hampi.
• He expanded the empire by defeating the Warangal king and taking control of parts of the Deccan.
• Harihara I was known for his strong leadership and military skills, which helped in consolidating the newly formed empire.
• His reign set the stage for further expansion and prosperity under his successors.

Deva Raya I (1404-1422)

Deva Raya I's Reign (1404-1422):

• Deva Raya I became the ruler after Harihar II, amidst confusion and succession disputes.
• Early in his reign, he faced challenges over the Tungabhadra Doab.

Conflict with Bahmani Sultan Firuz Shah:

• Deva Raya I was defeated by Firuz Shah Bahmani and had to pay ten lakhs of huns, pearls, and elephants as compensation.
• To secure peace, he agreed to marry his daughter to the Sultan, giving Bankapur in dowry.
• The marriage was celebrated with great splendor but similar political marriages in the past had not ensured lasting peace.

Renewed Conflicts and Alliances:

• The dispute over the Krishna-Godavari basin led to renewed conflicts involving Vijayanagar, the Bahmani kingdom, and Orissa.
• Deva Raya I allied with Warangal to partition the Reddi kingdom after confusion in the Reddi rule.
• Warangal's shift away from the Bahmani side altered the power dynamics in the Deccan.

Victory Over Bahmani Sultan:

• With the new alliance, Deva Raya I defeated Firuz Shah Bahmani decisively.
• He annexed territory up to the mouth of the Krishna river, expanding his influence.

Contributions to Peace and Agriculture:

• Deva Raya I focused on peaceful development by constructing a dam over the Tungabhadra river.
• This project improved water supply to the city and nearby fields, boosting agricultural productivity.
• He also built a dam on the Haridra river for similar irrigation purposes, enhancing regional agriculture and revenue.

Deva Raya II (1425-1446)

Deva Raya II (1425-1446): A Great Ruler of Vijayanagar:

• Deva Raya II, considered the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagar dynasty, ascended the throne after some confusion. He was known for being an able administrator, an ambitious warrior, and a man of letters.
• His empire, as described by the Persian chronicler Abdur Razzak, stretched from Ceylon to Gulbarga and from Orissa to Malabar.
• To strengthen his army, Deva Raya II inducted more Muslims into it, believing their superiority lay in their sturdier horses and skilled archers.
• He enlisted 2,000 Muslims, giving them jagirs, and encouraged his Hindu soldiers to learn archery from them. This practice was not new, as Deva Raya I had also employed Muslims in his army.
• Deva Raya II assembled a vast army, including 60,000 Hindus skilled in archery,80,000 cavalry, and 200,000 infantry. The large cavalry strained state resources, as most good mounts had to be imported at high prices.
• In 1443, he crossed the Tungabhadra River to recover lost territories from the Bahmani sultans, but after three hard battles, both sides agreed to maintain existing frontiers.
• He fought significant battles against the Gajapati of Odisha, including battles in 1427,1436, and 1441. He also repulsed invasions by the Reddis of Kondavidu and brought petty chiefs under Vijayanagara control by 1432.
• Deva Raya II earned the title Gajabetegara, meaning “Hunter of elephants.”
• Tributes were paid to him by kings of Quilon,Sri Lanka,Pulicat,Pegu,Tenasserim(in Burma), and Malaya, indicating the far-reaching influence of his rule, possibly supported by a strong navy.
• His reign marked a peak in Kannada literature, with notable works authored by him and patronage of famous poets. He was credited with works in Kannada and Sanskrit, and his court included renowned poets like Gunda Dimdima and Srinatha.
• The era also saw developments in secular literature, with figures like Parameshvara from the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics living in his empire.

Foreigners Account

The Vijayanagar Empire, under strong rulers in the 15th century, became the most powerful and rich state in South India. Many travelers from this time left detailed descriptions of the city and its surroundings.

Nicolo Conti: Nicolo Conti was a Venetian merchant and explorer who traveled to India and Southeast Asia in the early 15th century.

• He visited places like Vijayanagar, Pacamuria, and Helly in India.
• Conti noted the similarities between the Telugu language and Italian, particularly in the way words end with vowels.
• He also visited Mylapore, where he saw the tomb of St. Thomas, a Christian figure.
• In the 1430s, he traveled back to India and then to the Middle East, often presenting himself as a Muslim for safety.

During his visit to Vijayanagar in 1420, Conti described the city as having a 60-mile circumference, with walls extending to the mountains and enclosing a valley. He estimated there were 90,000 men fit for battle in the city and noted that the king was more powerful than all other kings in India.

Ferishta, a Persian historian, wrote about the strength of the Vijayanagara Empire compared to the Bahmani Sultanate. He noted that the Rayas of Vijayanagar were superior in power, wealth, and land area.

• Ferishta was brought to Ahmadnagar to teach Persian to a young prince.
• He later served in Bijapur and was asked to write a history of India, including the Deccan dynasties.
• His work, known as the Tarikh-i Firishta or Gulshan-i Ibrahim, covered the history of Hindustan before the Muslim conquest and various provinces of India.
• Firishta’s account is widely quoted, especially for the Adil Shahi dynasty, and is considered reliable for north Indian politics of the time.

Abdur Razzaq, who traveled extensively and served as an ambassador at the court of Deva Raya II, described Vijayanagar as having 300 ports and a vast territory. He praised the city’s population density and agricultural productivity.

• Razzaq mentioned 11 lakh troops in the empire and considered Vijayanagar one of the most magnificent cities in the world.
• He described the city as having seven citadels and walls encircling each other, with the central fortress being very large.
• The city had long, broad bazaars, and people lived in quarters based on their caste or profession.
• There were also separate quarters for Muslims, and the city had numerous running streams and canals.
• One traveler claimed the city was larger than Rome, a major western city at the time.

Abdur Razzaq also noted the wealth of the Vijayanagara kings, mentioning cell-like basins of bullion in the king’s palace. This tradition of hoarding wealth was old, but sometimes attracted foreign attacks.

• Abdur Razzaq was a Timurid chronicler and Islamic scholar who served as an ambassador for Shah Rukh of the Timurid dynasty.
• He wrote about Calicut and its society and culture during his visit in the early 1440s.

Fernão Nunes, a Portuguese traveler and chronicler, spent three years in Vijayanagara from 1535 to 1537 CE. His writings reveal details about the city, including the construction of fortifications, watch towers, and security walls.

• These expansion efforts occurred during the reigns of King Bukka Raya II and Deva Raya I.
• He visited Vijayanagara during the rule of Achutha Deva Raya.

Was Vijayanagar a war state?

Debate on Vijayanagar State:

• Scholars debate the nature of the Vijayanagar state.
• Some view it as a war state, citing a ruler's idea of dividing state income for warfare, works, and emergencies.

Military Aspects:

• Vijayanagar was a war state like other medieval states, always ready for conflict.
• Success against Muslim opponents came from adopting their cavalry tactics and including mounted Muslim archers in the army.
• Rulers maintained a large standing army, paid in cash, blending traditional and new military practices.

Centralization vs. Autonomy:

• Debate exists on whether Vijayanagar was a loose association of semiautonomous leaders (nayaks) or a centralized state like the Delhi sultanate.
• The amaram system, where nayaks maintained troops for the ruler, differs from the Turkish iqta system.
• Nayaks were hereditary lords, not former slaves, running their own administration while pledging loyalty to the ruler.
• There were 200 nayaks, and while rulers tried to control them, they couldn't remove them.
• Some local rulers in outlying areas also maintained power under Vijayanagar suzerainty.
• The area directly administered by Vijayanagar rulers was likely smaller than the empire's size.

Administration:

• The administration included a council of ministers led by a Pradhani (chief) and a secretariat of scribes (kayasthas).
• Abdur Razzak described the diwan-khana near the ruler’s palace for record-keeping and scribes' work.
• Details about the administration method and direct governance area size are limited.

Was Vijayanagar a citadel of (Hindu) orthodoxy and conservatism?

• Vijayanagar State was a stronghold of Hindu traditionalism and conservatism.
• Rulers focused on building and repairing temples and maths, proudly calling themselves “protectors of the Vedas and the Vedic path.”
• Brahmins received revenue-free land grants and were appointed as military commanders, not out of religious favor but to counter the powerful Kannad nayaks.
• Despite being initially Shaivite, the rulers were religiously inclusive, supporting Jainism and allowing Christian missionaries to operate freely.
• Muslim soldiers in the army were given freedom to practice their faith, and overall,Hindus and Muslims coexisted peacefully.
• However,intolerance was evident in 1469 when Mallikarjuna Raya ordered the massacre of Muslims in Bhatkhal after a dispute, leading to retaliation from the Bahmani ruler and loss of territory.

Climax of the Vijayanagar Empire and its Disintegration

After the death of Deva Raya II, there was a period of confusion in the Vijayanagar Empire. Civil wars erupted as various contenders fought for the throne.
During this turmoil, many feudatories took the opportunity to assert their independence.
The authority of the Raya diminished, becoming limited to Karnataka and parts of the western Andhra region.

Saluva dynasty

Rise of the Saluva Dynasty:

• After a period of turmoil, the king's minister Saluva usurped the throne, marking the end of the previous dynasty.
• Saluva restored internal law and order and established a new dynasty.

Saluva Narasimha (1485–1490):

• The first king of the new dynasty, Narasimha, focused on subduing vassals and expanding his control over the kingdom.
• He faced challenges from the king of Orissa and struggled to halt their encroachment.
• Narasimha also worked to revive the horse trade by opening new ports on the west coast, aiming to regain control over trade that had fallen into Bahmanī hands.

Tuluva Dynasty and Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1530):

• The Saluva dynasty eventually gave way to the Tuluva dynasty.
• Krishna Deva Raya emerged as the most notable ruler of this dynasty, known for his significant contributions and achievements.

Tuluva dynasty

Krishna Deva Raya (1509-29):

• Krishna Deva Raya faced the challenge of re-establishing internal order and dealing with rivals of Vijayanagar, including the successor states of the Bahmani kingdom: Bidar Sultanate, Ahmednagar Sultanate, Bijapur Sultanate, Golconda Sultanate, Berar Sultanate, and the state of Orissa, which had taken over many Vijayanagar territories.
• He also had to contend with the growing power of the Portuguese, who were using their control over the seas to pressure smaller vassal states of Vijayanagar into making economic and political concessions.
• In a series of battles lasting seven years, Krishna Deva first forced the ruler of Orissa to restore territories up to the river Krishna to Vijayanagar.
• Strengthened by this victory, he renewed the struggle for control of the Tungabhadra doab, leading to a hostile alliance between his main opponents, Bijapur and Orissa.
• Krishna Deva made grand preparations for conflict, starting hostilities by overrunning Raichur and Mudkal.
• In the subsequent battle, the Bijapur ruler was completely defeated in 1520, pushed across the river Krishna, and barely escaping with his life.
• The Vijayanagar armies also reached Belgaum in the west, occupied and sacked Bijapur for several days, and destroyed Gulbarga before a truce was established.
• Under Krishna Deva, Vijayanagar emerged as the strongest military power in the south. However, in their eagerness to renew old feuds, the southern powers largely ignored the threat posed by the rising Portuguese.
• Unlike the Cholas and some early Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva paid little attention to developing a navy.

Foreign Accounts

Foreign Travellers' Accounts of Vijayanagar:

• Foreign travellers like Barbosa, Paes, and Nuniz described the conditions in Vijayanagar during this period, highlighting the efficient administration and prosperity of the empire under Krishna Deva Raya.
• Domingos Paes, a Portuguese traveller who spent years at Krishna Deva's court, praised his personality and administration. Paes noted Krishna Deva as a great ruler, just but prone to sudden fits of rage, and emphasized his care for the welfare of his subjects.
• Paes provided a detailed account of Vijayanagara (Hampi) in his chronicle, describing the city’s feudal military system, the annual Durga festival, and the impressive urban landscape with its markets, temples, and royal center. He compared Vijayanagara to Rome, calling it the "best provided city of the world."
• Duarte Barbosa, another Portuguese traveller, described Vijayanagara as rich and well-supplied with provisions, with a large population and extensive trade. He noted the city's impressive walls, palaces, and vibrant trade in jewels, diamonds, pearls, and textiles.
• Barbosa highlighted Krishna Deva Raya’s administration, including his large retinue of elephants and horses, and the king's practice of meeting with governors and officers in council. He also mentioned the king's frequent wars with neighboring rulers.
• Krishna Deva Raya was also known for his patronage of literature and scholarship. He supported poets in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit, marking a golden age for Telugu literature.
• He respected all sects of Hinduism and made significant contributions to temples, including the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and parts of the Srisailam temple complex. He was formally initiated into the Vaishnava Sampradaya by Vyasatirtha.

Sadashiva Raya and Rama Raja

After Krishna Deva's Death:

• Following Krishna Deva's death, a succession struggle ensued among his relatives as his sons were minors.
• In 1543,Sadashiva Raya ascended the throne, ruling until 1567. However, the real power was held by a triumvirate, with Rama Raja as the leading figure.

Rama Raja's Strategies:

• Rama Raja skillfully played the Muslim powers against each other.
• He formed a commercial treaty with the Portuguese, disrupting the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler.
• Through a series of wars, he defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar.
• Rama Raja aimed to maintain a balance of power favorable to Vijayanagar among these three powers.

The Battle of Talikota (1565):

• Eventually, Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmadnagar united against Vijayanagar.
• They dealt a crushing defeat to Vijayanagar at Bannihatti, near Talikota, in 1565, known as the Battle of Talikota or the Battle of Rakshasa-Tangadi.
• Rama Raja was surrounded, captured, and executed.
• Vijayanagar was thoroughly looted and left in ruins.

End of Vijayanagar's Great Age:

• The Battle of Bannihatti is considered the end of the great age of Vijayanagar.
• Although the kingdom persisted for nearly a hundred years, its territories diminished, and the Raya lost significance in South Indian politics.

State Administration, Society and Economy in Vijayanagara

The Vijayanagar Empire: Kingship, Administration, and Economic Life:

• Concept of Kingship: The Vijayanagar rulers held a high regard for kingship. Krishna Deva Raya, in his book on polity, advised kings to protect the good and punish the wicked vigilantly and to levy taxes moderately.
• Council of Ministers: The king was aided by a council of ministers composed of the great nobles of the kingdom.
• Administrative Division: The kingdom was divided into rajyas or mandalam (provinces), which were further subdivided into nadu (district),sthala (sub-district), and grama (village). However, the Chola traditions of village self-government weakened under Vijayanagar rule due to the rise of hereditary nayakships.
• Condition of Peasantry: Historians debate the condition of the peasantry, as travelers often lacked detailed knowledge of village life. Generally, it is assumed that economic life remained relatively unchanged. Houses were typically thatched with small doors, and people often went about barefoot and minimally clothed.
• Tax Rates:The share of produce paid by peasants varied by crop type and irrigation method. Tax rates included:
  • One-third of kuruvai (winter rice)
  • One-fourth of sesame, ragi, horsegram
  • One-sixth of millet and other dryland crops
• Other Taxes: In addition to land tax, various other taxes were imposed, including property tax, tax on sale of produce, profession taxes, military contributions, tax on marriage, etc.
• Traveler's Observations: Sixteenth-century traveler Nikitin noted that while the land was overpopulated, the nobles lived in luxury while common people were miserable.
• Growth of Trade and Agriculture: Despite declining village self-rule, a class of locally powerful individuals emerged, enhancing agriculture through additional irrigation facilities. Temples with rent-free villages also contributed to this development.
• Urban Life and Trade: Urban life and trade flourished under the Vijayanagar Empire, with many towns developing around large temples. These temples needed supplies of food and commodities for pilgrims and priests and actively engaged in trade, both internal and overseas.
• Overall Growth: Despite continuous wars, there was significant growth in trade, urbanization, and agriculture in South India between the 14th and 16th centuries, reflected in the period's cultural growth.