Post-Mauryan Period: Literature and Science | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Literature

The Kushans were aware that different scripts and languages were used by people in their empire. As a result, they issued coins and inscriptions in Greek, Kharoshthi, and Brahmi scripts. They also used Greek, Prakrit, Sanskrit-influenced Prakrit, and later on, pure Sanskrit. This shows that the rulers officially recognized three scripts and four languages. Kushana coins and inscriptions reflect the mixing and coexistence of different scripts and languages, indicating a level of literacy during their time.

While the Mauryas and Satavahanas supported Prakrit, some Central Asian princes promoted and developed Sanskrit literature. The earliest example of the kavya style is found in the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman around AD 150. From this point onward, inscriptions were composed in pure Sanskrit, although Prakrit continued to be used in inscriptions until the fourth century and beyond.

Inscriptions

• Junagarh Rock inscription by Rudradaman I: Junagarh Rock inscription by Rudradaman I records the repairs made to improve the Sudershana Lake. The rock also contains inscriptions from Ashoka and Skandgupta.
• Notable Sanskrit scholars of this period included Asvaghosha, Vasumitra, and Nagarjuna. Asvaghosha, who was supported by the Kushans, wrote the Buddhcharita, a biography of the Buddha in the form of Mahakavya, marking the first Buddhist book written in Sanskrit. He also composed other works such as Saundarananda, Vajrasuchi, and Sahputra, which are fine examples of Sanskrit kavya.
• Vasumitra authored texts like Prajnaparmita, Sutra Shastra, and Mahavibhasha. The rise of Mahayana Buddhism led to the creation of numerous avadanas(life history and teachings), primarily composed in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit to communicate Mahayana teachings to the public. Notable examples of this genre include Mahavastu and Divyavadana.
• Milindapanho by Nagasena: This text records the questions posed by Menander to Nagasena about philosophy and Buddhism, along with Nagasena's answers.
• Influence of Greek Theatre: Indian theatre is believed to have been significantly influenced by Greek theatre. Outdoor and indoor theatres are found in the caves of Ramgarh hill, south of Banaras. The design of these theatres is thought to be of Greek origin. While some scholars question this Greek influence, it is clear that the curtain, known as yavanika, was borrowed from the Greeks. Initially, the term yavana referred specifically to the Greeks, but over time it came to denote all foreigners.
• Additionally, the character of the clown (Vidushaka) in Indian dramas was inspired by Greek models. However, India's contribution to the development of theatre is undeniable. Around 150 BC, Patanjali mentioned the presentation of scenes such as the binding of Bali or the killing of Kansa.
• Bharata’s Natyasastra: This work on rhetoric and dramaturgy marked the formal introduction of theatre into India.
• Kamasutra of Vatsyayana: Considered a prime example of secular literature, this work from the third century AD is the earliest text on erotics, focusing on sex and lovemaking. It offers a glimpse into the life of a city-dweller during a period of urban prosperity.
• Charaka-Samhita by Charaka: This text expands on Ayurveda and introduces the concept of balance among the three doshas: Vata, Pitta, and Kapha.
• Sushruta-Samhita by Sushruta: Known as the Father of Surgery, Sushruta describes over 120 surgical instruments in this text.
• Literature from South India includes:Sangam Literature with notable works such as Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar,Agattiyam by Agathiyar, and Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar. Outside of Sangam Literature, there are five great epics:Silappatikaram,Manimekalai,Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi,Valayapathi, and Kundalakeci.

Science

Astronomy:

• Many Greek terms related to the movement of planets were incorporated into Sanskrit texts.
• Indian astrology was influenced by Greek ideas, with the term horashastra in Sanskrit derived from the Greek term horoscope.
• The esteemed Indian treatise Gargi Samhita acknowledged the contributions of Greek astronomers, despite considering them barbarians, and emphasized the reverence for their astronomical knowledge.

Medicine, Botany, and Chemistry:

• In medicine, botany, and chemistry, the Indians did not owe much to the Greeks. These subjects were primarily addressed by Charaka and Sushruta.
• Charakasamhita lists numerous plants and herbs used for preparing drugs, reflecting the advanced knowledge of chemistry in ancient India.
• The processes described for pounding and mixing plants provide insights into the developed knowledge of chemistry.
• The ancient Indian physician relied mainly on plants for curing ailments, which is why medicine itself came to be known as aushadhi.

Technology:

• In the field of technology, Indians appeared to have benefited from contact with Central Asians.
• Kanishka, a Central Asian ruler, was depicted wearing trousers and long boots.
• The introduction of the stirrup is also attributed to the Kushans.
• The practice of making leather shoes possibly began in India during this period.
• Kushan copper and gold coins in India were imitations of Roman coins.
• Exchanges of embassies between Indian kings and Roman emperors, such as Augustus and Trajan, facilitated the introduction of new practices in technology from Rome to ancient India.

Crafts

• Advancements in arts and crafts were notable during the reign of the Sakas, Kushans, Satvahanas, and Tamil Kings.
• The Mahavastu and Milinda Panha document various crafts practiced, indicating significant progress and specialization in fields like metallurgy, glass manufacture, architecture, sculpture, weaving, carpentry, ironsmithy, and dye making.
• Weaving silk and cloth making also saw remarkable progress, with Mathura emerging as a major center.
• Ivory crafts reached their peak, with articles found as far as Rome and Afghanistan.
• Crafts such as glass melting,bead-cutting, and sculpture making were highly developed.
• Luxury items like perfumes and jewelry were produced abundantly, and architecture, sculpture, and cave construction thrived.
• The Gandhara School of Art flourished during this period, with chief centers in Gandhara, Sarnath, Amravati, and Mathura.
• Numerous monasteries, Viharas, and caves were constructed, showcasing the mastery of Indian craftsmen.

Mining and Metallurgy

• Advancements in mining and metallurgy were significant in the post-Mauryan period.
• Contemporary literature referenced eight crafts related to the working of various metals like gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron, and precious stones.
• Progress was notable in the technology of iron, with the production of weapons, tools, and steel.
• Indian iron and steel, especially cutlery, were in high demand in western Asia, with the Romans willing to pay a premium for Indian cutlery.
• Unique specimens of gold and silver jewelry made by Indian craftsmen were sought after in foreign lands, particularly in the Roman Empire.
• Coin-minting became an important craft, with various types and shapes of coins made during this period.
• The introduction of better cavalry and the use of riding horses became prominent under the Kushanas and Shakas.
• The use of reins and saddles was popularized, as depicted in Buddhist sculptures.
• The Shakas and Kushans were skilled horsemen, and their passion for horsemanship is reflected in equestrian terracotta figures from the Kushan period.
• The introduction of clothing items like the turban,tunic,trousers, and heavy long coat by Central Asians influenced Indian attire.
• These advancements in military technology greatly aided their conquests in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.