Post-Mauryan Period: Art, Architecture, Culture | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Structures and Pottery

The Shaka-Kushan phase marked a significant advancement in building activities, as evidenced by excavations revealing multiple layers of construction at various sites in North India. These layers sometimes number over half a dozen.
Key Features of the Shaka-Kushan Phase:

• Burnt Bricks and Tiles: Burnt bricks were used for flooring, and tiles were employed for both flooring and roofing. The use of tiles may not have been a foreign adoption but rather an indigenous development.
• Brick Walls: The period also saw the widespread construction of brick walls.
• Characteristic Pottery: The distinctive pottery of this phase included red ware, both plain and polished, with medium to fine fabric. Unique pots such as sprinklers and spouted channels were prevalent.
• Central Asian Influence: The red pottery techniques were not only found in India but also in Central Asia, particularly in regions like Farghana, which were on the peripheries of the Kushan cultural zone. This suggests a shared cultural and artistic heritage.

Coins

• Coins from the Shaka-Kushan phase, which have been discussed in a separate topic, provide valuable insights into the economic and cultural aspects of the period.

Religion

• Religious practices during the Shaka-Kushan phase, which have been addressed in a separate topic, reflect the diverse belief systems and rituals that were prevalent during this time.

Language and Literature

• The study of language and literature from the Shaka-Kushan phase, discussed in a separate topic, offers insights into the linguistic and literary developments of the period.

Art and Architecture

Key Developments in Art and Architecture:

• Shift in Medium: From the Mauryan period onwards, there was a notable shift towards using non-perishable materials like stone for artistic expression.
• Interaction with External Art Forms: Constant interaction with art forms beyond the Indian subcontinent influenced the development of various schools of art.
• Religious Inspiration: Most art forms were inspired by Buddhism and Jainism, with very few Brahmanical monuments being prominent.
• Religious Centres: Places like Sanchi,Sarnath,Taxila, and Bharhut were significant religious centres where Stupas were originally built during the Mauryan period, with later additions.

Between 200 B.C. and 300 A.D., certain general characteristics of art emerged:

• Religious Themes: Art activities were closely related to the religions practiced during this period, with symbols and units associated with them.
• Depiction of the Buddha: The Buddha image, which began to be sculpted during this time, marked a departure from earlier representations of him through symbols like the Bodhi tree, Stupa, or footprints. Making images for worship became common among other religions as well.
• Construction of Stupas, Chaityas, and Viharas: These structures became popular across various regions.
• Secular Art Forms: Art forms and their symbolic representations were not exclusive to any particular religion. For example, the Bharhut and Sanchi Stupas depicted scenes from the life of the Buddha as well as reliefs of Yakshas, Yakshinis, Nagas, and other deities.
• Integration of Nature and Religion: Artists carved scenes from nature alongside religious ideas, exemplifying secular art forms.
• Influence of Non-Indian Art: Regular interactions with other cultures led to the incorporation of non-Indian art elements, particularly in the Gandhara region, which produced art typical to the region by assimilating various influences.

Architecture in the Post-Mauryan Period:

• Residential Structures and Residential Architecture in the post-Mauryan period can be categorized into two main types:Residential Structures and Religious Monuments.
• Under the first category, there are very few surviving monuments from the initial phase, as they were primarily constructed from perishable materials like wood.
• However, numerous monuments have survived or been unearthed through excavations, falling under the second category of Religious Monuments.

Residential Architecture

• The Milinda Panha, an ancient text, describes a city with features such as moats,ramparts,gate houses,towers, well-laid-out streets,markets,parks,lakes, and temples.
• There are references to multi-storeyed buildings with wagon-vaulted roofs and verandas, predominantly constructed of wood.
• This description is somewhat supported by archaeological evidence.
• However, in the countryside, there is not much noticeable change in architectural style or types of huts.

Temples and Towers

• There is limited data on temple structures from this period based on excavations.
• The earliest known temples from this period include:
  • The temple at Jhandial(Taxila)
  • The Sankarshana temple at Nagari(Rajasthan)
  • The temple at Besnagar(Madhya Pradesh)
  • An apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda(Andhra Pradesh)
• Accounts from later periods, such as that of Fa-hein, mention the existence of a grand tower at Purushapura(Peshawar), built during the reign of Kanishka I. This tower had 13 storeys and was topped by an iron column with impressive umbrellas.
• The construction of temples for the worship of deities became common at a later date, while Buddhist Stupas and other structures were the predominant forms of religious architecture during this period.

Stupas: The practice of preserving the remains of important personalities below accumulated earth was long established. Buddhist art adopted this practice, and the structure built over such a site was known as a Stupa.

• According to Buddhist sources, the remains of the Buddha’s body were divided into eight parts and placed under the Stupas. During the time of Asoka, these remains were dug out and redistributed, leading to the construction of other Stupas, which became sacred places of Buddhism.
• The worship of Stupas led to their ornamentation, and a specific type of architecture developed for their construction. Stupas had the shape of an upside-down bowl. At the top, which was slightly flat, was the harmika, the abode of the Gods, where urns containing the remains of the Buddha or a significant personality associated with the religion were placed in a gold or silver casket.
• A wooden rod (Yashti) was placed in the middle of the Stupa, with the bottom of the rod fixed on the top of the Stupa. Three small umbrella-type discs were placed on the top of this rod, symbolizing respect, veneration, and magnanimity.

Some of the prominent Stupas include:

• Bodh Gaya(Bihar): This is where Lord Buddha gained 'knowledge' (bodhi), and it was here that Asoka had a 'Bodhi Manda' constructed. No trace of the original construction has survived. Only the remains of stone pillars from the Sunga period, like the railing pillars found around other Stupas, remain, and these too have sculpted panels illustrating stories from the Buddhist Jatakas.
• Sanchi Stupa(Madhya Pradesh): It features three Stupas surrounded by gateways, with the most famous being the Great Stupa. This was originally made of brick during Asoka's time (c. 250 B.C.) and was nearly doubled in circumference during the Sunga period (c. 150 B.C.). The bricks from Asoka's time were replaced by stones, and a 'Vedika' was constructed around it.
• Four gates, one in each direction, were added to beautify the Stupa. From the southern gate, an inscription tells us that it was donated by King Satakarni, and the incision work was done by craftsmen who worked in ivory.
• The northern gate and the panels depict stories from the Jatakas. The reliefs of Sanchi prominently display the four great events of the Buddha’s life: his birth, attainment of knowledge, dharmachakra-pravartana, and Mahaparinirvana. Representations of birds and animals like lion, elephant, camel, and ox are abundant, some with riders in heavy coats and boots. Lotus and wishing-vines are beautifully carved as ornamentation, and there are unique representations of forest animals as if the whole animal world turned out to worship the Buddha.

Bharhut Stupa

Located near Satna in Madhya Pradesh, the Bharhut Stupa's main structure no longer exists. However, important features from the Stupa, preserved in museums, include:

• Gateways (Toranas): Stone imitations of wooden gateways.
• Railings: Stone imitations of post-and-rail fences, with heavy stone borders (coping). The uprights are carved with Yakshas, Yakshis, and other divinities associated with Buddhism, some of which have inscriptions identifying them.
• Buddhist Themes: Representations of Jataka stories and other Buddhist themes.

Amaravati Stupa:

• Constructed with white marble, the Amaravati Stupa has lost its original structure, but sculptured panels are preserved in museums.
• Built with the support of the City-Chief and public donations, the Stupa measured 42 meters in diameter and 29 meters in height.
• Featured a circular prayer path 10 meters high, made of stone, with intricately carved Vedika pillars depicting garlanded gods, the Bodhi tree, Stupa, dharmachakra, events from the life of Lord Buddha, and Jataka stories.
• The entrance gate (torana) depicted four lions on the Vedika, with lotuses carved over the pillars.
• Initially, Buddha was represented through symbols, but by the first century A.D., Buddha images alongside symbols began to appear.

Nagarjunakonda Stupa:

• Built in a distinct style from North India, the Nagarjunakonda Stupa featured two circular walls connected by spoke-like walls, filled with mud, stones, or bricks.
• Measuring 30 meters in diameter and 18 meters in height, the outer casing consisted of intricately carved marble slabs.
• The hemispherical top was adorned with lime and mortar work, and four rectangular projections supported a row of five free-standing pillars.
• Notable for its beautiful panels depicting episodes from the Buddha's life, including:
• Gods praying to Bodhisattva for earthly birth.
• Buddha’s entry into the womb as a white elephant.
• Buddha’s birth under a flowering teak tree.

Taxila Stupas:

• Excavations at Taxila and surrounding areas revealed several Stupas.
• Chira-Tope Stupa: Excavated by Sir John Marshall, featuring a stone drum casing decorated with Bodhisattva images.
• Shah-ji-ki dheri Stupa: Revealed in 1908, erected by Kanishka and mentioned in Fa-hien's accounts.
• Jhandial Stupa: Built in the Scytho-Parthian style, with a silver casket containing a gold relic bone.
• Numerous Stupas were found in various regions, including two in Mathura, showcasing the development of Stupa architecture into distinct styles and the interaction of artisans across different areas.

Rock-Cut Architecture

Rock-cut architecture refers to structures carved directly into rock cliffs or boulders. Both Buddhists and Jains constructed Chaityas and Viharas during this period as places of worship and residence for monks.

Chaitya:

• A Chaitya is a shrine cell with a votive Stupa placed in the center.
• Chaityas typically feature a long rectangular hall that ends in a semi-circular apse at the rear.
• The hall is divided into a nave, an apse, and two side aisles separated by rows of pillars.
• The central area of the hall, where the votive Stupa is located, is surrounded by pillars.
• Ceiling: The hall has a barrel-vaulted ceiling, adding to the spaciousness of the interior.
• Doorway: The doorway is usually positioned to face the votive Stupa, emphasizing its central importance.
• Chaitya Window: The facade often features a horse-shoe shaped window known as the chaitya window, adding to the architectural beauty.

Viharas:

• Viharas, or monasteries, were primarily rock-cut structures used as residences for monks.
• They typically consist of a central square or oblong hall, often surrounded by small cells for individual monks.
• Veranda: A pillared veranda often precedes the central hall, providing additional space and a communal area.
• Raised Benches: Cells and halls are usually equipped with raised benches for the monks' use, emphasizing the functional aspect of the design.
• Excavation: The excavation of Viharas involved creating a series of rooms and communal spaces carved out of rock.
• Examples: Some of the earliest Viharas in western India include those found at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta, Pitalkora, Nasik, and Karle.
• Jaina Viharas: Among Jaina Viharas, those at Udayagiri and Khandagiri (Orissa) were excavated during the reign of Kharavela.
• The layout of Viharas could vary, with some featuring a single cell and others having multiple cells arranged around an open courtyard.
• The inner facade of Viharas often includes doorways surmounted by semi-circular arches, adding an architectural flourish.
• The double-storied Ranigumpha cave on Udayagiri hills stands out as the largest and most significant of all the caves from this period.

Sculptural Art

Integration with Architecture:

• Sculptural art is closely linked with architecture, as sculptures are integral to structures like Stupas and Chaityas.
• Single images were often housed in Viharas or placed at religious centers.

Regional Styles:

• During this period, distinct regional styles or schools of sculptural art emerged.Gandhara and Mathura schools in the north, and Amaravati in the south, became prominent centers for sculptural art.

Characteristics:

• Post-Mauryan art differed significantly from earlier Imperial Mauryan Art.
• While Mauryan art was considered palace art, Sunga-Kanva period art had a broader social base and varied motives, techniques, and significance.
• This period is marked by Buddhist images and relief sculptures carved on Stupas, Viharas, and Chaityas.
• Brahmanical sculptures from this period are relatively few.

Development of Buddha Images:

• One of the key developments of this period was the modeling of the image of the Buddha in the Mathura and Gandhara schools.
• These images reflected regional styles and interpretations of Buddhist iconography.

Brahmanical Sculptures:

• Following the Buddhists and Jainas, Brahmanical religion also began to create images of various gods and goddesses.
• Sculptures were made in both relief and round, with large, well-modeled figures.
• Although these figures were not anatomically precise, they conveyed the intended representations effectively.

Yakshas and Yakshinis:

• Yakshas and Yakshinis hold significant importance in this period's sculptural art.
• Icon Worship: Among the Jainas, icon worship can be traced back to the Sunga period, as evidenced by the damaged torso of a nude figure identified as a Tirthankara.
• Hathigumpha Inscription: The inscription indicates the presence of image worship among the Jaina community in eastern India even before the Mauryan times.
• Votive Tablets: Some Jaina images found in votive tablets, featuring ashtamangalas (eight auspicious marks), suggest the growing practice of image worship by the first century A.D.

Buddhist Image Worship:

• Image worship among Buddhists was particularly promoted by the Mahayana sect.
• Seated and standing images of the Buddha were carved in Mathura and Gandhara, showcasing regional variations in style and iconography.

Early Relief Carving:

• The bas reliefs of Sanchi, Barhut, and Bodh Gaya represent an early phase in the art of relief carving.
• These sculptures, often found on medallions or panels surrounding a Stupa, depict themes from the Buddha’s life and Jataka stories.
• The reliefs are characterized by continuous narration, illustrating events in a sequential manner.