Mughal Empire, First Phase: Humayun | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Problems for Humayun 

Humayun's Challenges as the New Ruler:

• Humayun became the ruler at a young age of 23 after the death of his father,Babur.
• He faced many problems left by Babur and new ones that arose after Babur's death.

Unsettled Administration and Rivalry:

• The administration was unstable, and many begs (nobles) wanted to assert their power.
• The Afghans were weakened but still aimed to establish their own kingdoms to challenge the Mughals.
• Humayun's brothers and other Timurid princes under Babur were eager to carve out their own territories.
• Bahadur Shah of Gujarat also posed a threat by expanding his control over Malwa and aiming to dominate Rajasthan.

Babur's Administrative Legacy:

• Babur did not have the time or inclination to establish a new administrative system and continued the existing one.
• He left day-to-day administration to the begs, who were responsible for land revenue collection and troop maintenance.
• Babur faced financial difficulties and ordered that 30% of the income from each tract be sent to the imperial treasury.
• Humayun inherited stretched finances due to this arrangement.

Intrigue at Babur's Court:

• At the end of Babur’s reign, a conspiracy was reportedly hatched by Khalifa Nizamuddin, Babur’s wakil, to replace Humayun with Mehdi Khwaja.
• This plan was unlikely to succeed because Mehdi Khwaja was not a Timurid.
• Some believed Babur suggested this due to his dissatisfaction with Humayun, but he eventually reconciled with Humayun and appointed him as his successor.

Timurid Tradition and Empire Division:

• Some of Babur’s brothers and Timurid princes wanted to re-establish the Central Asian tradition of dividing the empire.
• Kamran, Humayun’s brother, controlled Kabul and Qandahar, and later seized Lahore and parts of Punjab.
• Humayun confirmed Kamran's territories out of necessity, despite it being a de facto partition of the empire.

Babur's Advice to Humayun:

• Babur advised Humayun to treat his brothers and the begs equally and avoid showing special favors.
• This was meant to ensure loyalty to the sovereign.

Kamran’s Control and Its Impact:

• Kamran’s control over Afghanistan and Punjab cut off Humayun from recruiting soldiers from these areas.
• However, this also relieved Humayun from dealing with Central Asian threats.

Challenges from Timurid Nobles:

• Timurid nobles like Muhammad Zaman Mirza and Muhammad Sultan Mirza attempted to carve out their own empires, which weakened Humayun's position.
• The Mughal presence in India was still weak, allowing various factions to oppose them easily.

External Threats:

• The strongest external threats came from the Afghans in eastern U.P. and Bihar, and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• If Humayun could manage these threats effectively, he would be in a stronger position to deal with internal issues.

Interpreting Humayun’s Reign

Historians have differing opinions on how Humayun dealt with challenges during his reign. There is a lack of reliable chronology regarding events and Humayun's movements, leading to perceptions of inactivity.

• Some historians portray Humayun as an opium addict, influenced by Mirza Haider Dughlat's account in Tarikh-i-Rashidi. Dughlat suggests that bad influences led Humayun to opium use, contributing to his downfall.
• However, opium use was common in Central Asia at the time, and figures like Babur also consumed opium and wine without hindering their campaigns.
• Unlike Babur, who was experienced in adversity, Humayun was more prone to indulgence between campaigns.
• A critical examination of event chronologies reveals that perceived periods of inactivity were shorter than believed, depending on the sources used.
• Abul Fazl and Nizamuddin Ahmad had different chronologies, with Fazl's account generally preferred.
• Nizamuddin Ahmad's work,Tabaqat-i-Akbari, was briefer and less chronologically accurate than Abul Fazl's Akbar Nama.
• Ahmad relied on memoirs from those who lived during Babur and Humayun's times, while Abul Fazl had access to more comprehensive records.

Early activities of Humayun, and the Tussle with Bahadur Shah

Siege of Kalinjar 

Six months after becoming the ruler, Humayun laid siege to the strong fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand.

• This fort, along with Bayana, Gwalior, and Dholpur, was crucial in protecting Agra from the south.
• The fort had been attacked and occupied multiple times by previous Delhi rulers.

The Chandela ruler, known for his bravery, eventually surrendered Kalinjar to Humayun after a siege.

• He was allowed to keep control of the fort in exchange for acknowledging Humayun's authority.
• This victory boosted Humayun's reputation.

Conquering Kalinjar

• Humayun's conquest of Kalinjar might also have been a strategic move to counter the rising power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, who had recently captured Mandu.

Siege of Chunar 

• Problem with Afghans: Humayun faced challenges from the Afghans in eastern U.P. and Bihar, especially from a sardar named Sher Khan.
• Fort of Chunar: Sher Khan had recently taken control of the stronghold of Chunar, which was crucial for access to Bihar.
• Humayun’s March: To assert his claim over the Lodis' legacy, Humayun marched to Chunar to reclaim it.
• Sher Khan’s Escape: Sher Khan had evaded capture, leaving his son, Jalal Khan, in charge of the fort.
• Negotiations: Negotiations began between Humayun and Sher Khan, where Sher Khan offered to serve the Emperor with a small troop and pay gold as tribute.
• Humayun’s Decision: Humayun accepted Sher Khan’s offer, not viewing him as a significant threat at that time.
• Future Threat: Humayun couldn’t foresee Sher Khan’s future rise and the threat he would pose.
• Strategic Advantage: By accepting Sher Khan’s offer, Humayun also prevented him from aligning with other rivals, Biban and Bayazid.
• Perception of Weakness: Humayun’s willingness to compromise in these situations made him appear lacking in determination, which emboldened rivals like Bahadur Shah.

Activities at Agra 

After Chunar, Humayun spent almost a year at Agra, watching the situation.

• During this time, he attempted to organize the government and court society based on a somewhat idealistic model.
• He divided court society into administrative, ecclesiastical, and cultural sections, assigning different grades based on the quality and quantity of arrows awarded to each section.
• Nobles and others were given various rewards and titles to strengthen their loyalty to the new regime.
• Humayun also planned buildings and approved new inventions.
• His introduction of a drum of justice(tabl-i-adl) to address grievances marked an initial effort to gain public support for the Mughal state.
• He aimed to alleviate the burdens on village folk, cultivators, artisans, merchants, and foreign traders by remitting certain taxes and cesses.
• As Abul Fazl noted, he “unfurled the banner of protection for the people,” signifying a protective attitude, though it would take time for the effects of these measures to be felt.

Battle of Dadrah 

Background:

• Under the leadership of Biban and Bayazid, the Afghans managed to re-establish their control in Jaunpur, ousting the Mughal governor, Junaid Barlas.

Humayun's Campaign:

• Humayun, leading a large army, crossed the Ganges River and confronted the Afghans at Dadrah(also known as the Battle of Dadrah or Daurah).
• He dealt a decisive blow to the Afghan forces, causing significant losses.

Aftermath of the Battle:

• The Afghan leader,Shaikh Bayazid, was killed in the battle, effectively crippling the Afghan resistance.
• The Afghan king,Sultan Mahmud, retreated to Bhatta (Rewa).
• Sher Khan, another Afghan leader, did not support the Afghans in eastern Uttar Pradesh and faced accusations of betrayal.
• Some Afghan leaders, seeing no chance of victory against the Mughals, fled to the court of Bahadur Shah and sought refuge there.
• This series of events took place in 1532.

Bahadur Shah 

• During the initial two years of his reign, Humayun focused on strengthening his position.
• Once stabilized, he turned his attention to the challenges posed by Bahadur Shah in Malwa, eastern Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
• Bahadur Shah, the son of Muzaffar Shah II of Gujarat, had become the ruler of Malwa in 1526 after a period of wandering and seeking support from leaders like Ibrahim Lodi and Babur.
• After the battle of Panipat, some Afghans even urged Bahadur Shah to become the king of Jaunpur.
• The death of his father in Ahmadabad and the subsequent assassination of his successor, Sikandar, by the wazir Imadul Mulk, led to chaos in Gujarat.
• A group of nobles invited Bahadur Shah to take the throne during this turmoil.
• Bahadur Shah proved to be a ruthless yet capable ruler. He eliminated all his six surviving brothers, except for one who sought refuge with the ruler of Malwa.
• With his brothers out of the way, Bahadur Shah attacked and conquered Malwa.
• Prior to this, he had already conquered Ahmadnagar and forced the Nizam Shahi ruler to acknowledge his suzerainty.
• He even had the khutba (a formal public preaching in the Islamic tradition) recited in his name, asserting his authority.

Why is the conflict between Bahadur Shah and Humayun inevitable? 

Bahadur Shah, initially hesitant to confront the Mughals after witnessing Babur's victories, gradually shifted his perspective due to various factors, including his own successes and the influence of Afghan sardars and Timurid princes at his court.

• Bahadur Shah was initially wary of confronting the Mughals after witnessing Babur's victories at Panipat and Khanua.
• His perspective changed due to his own successes and the influence of Afghan sardars and Timurid princes at his court.
• These allies convinced him that the Mughals had become weaker and less formidable over time.
• Bahadur Shah also strengthened his military capabilities by hiring two Ottoman master gunners, Amir Mustafa (Rumi Khan) and Khwaja Safar.
• With their expertise, he built a powerful artillery park and learned Ottoman defensive methods, such as using carts for cover during cannon and matchlock fire.
• Confident in his new strategies and support from his allies, Bahadur Shah believed he could defeat Humayun, whom he considered inexperienced.
• In a letter to Humayun, he boasted about his own achievements and downplayed Humayun's victories over a few Afghan sardars.
• Regardless of his confidence, a conflict between the Mughals and a power in western India was seen as inevitable.
• The historical context of the Sultanate indicated that a power consolidating in the Indo-Gangetic plains would eventually seek control over the fertile regions of Malwa and the prosperous sea ports and treasures of Gujarat.
• Rajasthan served as a crucial link between Malwa, Gujarat, and the rich alluvial plains of northern India.
• Even under the Lodis, there were conflicts over control of Malwa and eastern Rajasthan once they secured their position in the Ganga valley.

Precursor of conflict between Bahadur Shah and Humayun 

• Humayun was hesitant to engage in conflict with Bahadur Shah initially.
• Bahadur Shah provoked Humayun into confrontation.

Siege of Chittor:

• Bahadur Shah besieged Chittor in 1532 to punish the Rana, his former ally.
• The Rana had upset Bahadur Shah by assisting Salhadi, a powerful local leader.

Humayun's Concern:

• Humayun recognized that Bahadur Shah's control over eastern Rajasthan would threaten Mughal positions in Agra and Delhi.
• To warn Bahadur Shah, Humayun moved to Gwaliyar in February 1533.

Rani Karnavati's Appeal:

• According to a later account, Rani Karnavati sent a rakhi to Humayun, prompting his assistance.
• Contemporary sources do not support this story.

Bahadur Shah's Treaty:

• Humayun's presence at Gwaliyar pressured Bahadur Shah into negotiating a treaty with the Rana.
• The Rana had to cede portions of Malwa and pay a heavy indemnity.

Humayun's Actions:

• Despite Bahadur Shah's gains, Humayun was pleased that Chittor remained uncaptured.
• He returned to Delhi and established a new capital, Din Panah, on the banks of the Jamuna.

Significance of Delhi:

• Humayun's choice of Delhi as a capital was strategic, given its historical significance and prestige.
• His decision was not a sign of weakness but a move to strengthen Mughal legitimacy.

Relations with Bahadur Shah:

• Humayun and Bahadur Shah maintained friendly relations, with Humayun approving Bahadur Shah's conquests in Malwa.
• Bahadur Shah misinterpreted Humayun's willingness to compromise as a weakness.

Escalation of Conflict:

• Bahadur Shah took aggressive actions against the Mughals, leading to inevitable conflict.
• He marched on Chittor again and supported Timurid prince Muhammed Zaman Mirza against Humayun.

Humayun's Counteractions:

• Humayun imprisoned and nearly blinded Muhammed Zaman Mirza, who later escaped and allied with Bahadur Shah.
• Bahadur Shah also supported Sher Khan against the Mughals.

Bahadur Shah's Attack:

• Bahadur Shah launched a three-pronged attack on the Mughals, led by Tatar Khan.
• Tatar Khan captured Bayana but was ultimately defeated by Mughal forces.
• The other attacks were also unsuccessful.

Humayun's Decision:

• Following these events, Humayun resolved to campaign against Bahadur Shah and conquer Gujarat.

The Gujarat Campaign

Humayun's Strategic March in 1535:

• After preparing his military forces, Humayun left Agra in early 1535.
• Instead of heading directly to Chittor, which was under siege by Bahadur Shah, Humayun took a different route.
• He marched through Raisen and Sarangpur to Ujjain.
• By doing this, he gained control over eastern Malwa and positioned himself advantageously.
• This route allowed him to potentially intercept Bahadur Shah if the latter attempted to retreat to Mandu in Malwa or to his capital, Ahmadabad.

Defeat of Bahadur Shah at Chittor 

Humayun's Movement and Bahadur Shah's Response:

• Humayun's actions caused unease in Bahadur Shah's camp.
• Bahadur Shah's master-gunner, Rumi Khan, was confident in his powerful guns to force the commanders of Chittor to surrender.
• Some advisers in Bahadur Shah's camp debated the legitimacy of attacking Humayun, considering it a holy war against a kafir (non-believer).
• Mughal historians interpreted Humayun's stay at Ujjain as reluctance to engage Bahadur Shah during his jihad against a kafir.

Rajput Resistance and Fort Capture:

• The united resistance of the Rajputs against the aggressor prolonged Rumi Khan's operations.
• After two months, the fort fell in March 1534.
• Bahadur Shah advanced and confronted Humayun at Mandsor, 80 miles north of Ujjain.

Strategic Decisions and Military Tactics:

• Some nobles advised Bahadur Shah to attack Humayun immediately due to his soldiers' success.
• Rumi Khan, proud of his artillery, suggested using cannons instead of swords and spears.
• Bahadur Shah adopted a defensive strategy similar to Babur's at Panipat, using carts and ditches to protect his artillery.

Humayun's Tactical Approach:

• Humayun, unlike Ibrahim Lodi, did not launch a frontal attack on Bahadur Shah's camp.
• After a preliminary attack with heavy losses, Humayun ordered his forces to cut off food supplies to Bahadur Shah's camp.
• This strategy led to a severe food shortage for Bahadur Shah's soldiers within two weeks.

Bahadur Shah's Retreat:

• Bahadur Shah, in distress, decided to spike his powerful guns and left secretly for Mandu with a few followers.
• Humayun captured Bahadur Shah's rich camp, and most of his soldiers were dispersed by April 1535.

Sacking of Mandu 

• Bahadur Shah, with 30,000 lightly equipped troops, entered Mandu while being pursued by Humayun.
• Humayun recruited notable nobles from Bahadur Shah, including Khudawand Khan, who became a key adviser in the Gujarat campaign.
• Rumi Khan, a mercenary, also joined Humayun. Despite his opportunistic nature, the blame on Rumi Khan for Bahadur Shah's failure against Humayun is seen as a common excuse for defeat.

Negotiations and Conflict:

• Upon reaching Mandu, Bahadur Shah proposed to surrender Malwa to Humayun in exchange for keeping Gujarat and Chittor.
• The proposals were tentatively accepted, but no formal agreement was made.
• The garrison of Mandu became lax, allowing Mughal troops to breach the city walls and open the gates.
• Bahadur Shah fled with a few attendants as Humayun's troops sacked Mandu for three days.
• Humayun then proceeded to Champanir, where Bahadur Shah had sought refuge.

Bahadur Shah expelled from Gujarat 

Champanir Fort and Bahadur Shah's Retreat:

• Champanir was known as a strong fort surrounded by jungle, where Bahadur Shah could have held out against Humayun for a long time.
• However, Bahadur Shah had lost the will to fight and decided to send some of his family members and treasures from the fort to Diu, leaving the fort in the hands of trusted men.
• Humayun pursued Bahadur Shah up to Cambay.
• Bahadur Shah then moved to Diu, which was controlled by the Portuguese navy. This allowed Humayun to successfully expel Bahadur Shah from Gujarat.

Conquest of Champaner 

Humayun's Campaign in Gujarat:

• After his time in Cambay, Humayun returned to Champanir and initiated a strict siege of the fort.
• In August 1535, the fort was captured, yielding immense riches.
• True to his earlier approach, Humayun treated the defending Gujarati nobles well, leading some of them to join the Mughal service.
• The conquest of Champanir marked the completion of the Mughal conquest of southern Gujarat.

Conquest of north Gujarat 

North Gujarat Control and Mughal Conquest:

• North Gujarat, including Ahmadabad and Patan, remained under the control of Bahadur Shah's men.
• After resting at Champaner for a couple of months during the monsoon season and engaging in various festivities,Humayun focused on conquering north Gujarat.

Imad-ul-Mulk's Revenue Collection:

• During this period, the Mughals neglected land-revenue collection.
• Bahadur Shah assigned Imad-ul-Mulk, one of his slaves, the task of collecting land-revenue from Gujarat, particularly north Gujarat.
• Imad-ul-Mulk used the money he collected and the prevailing anti-Mughal sentiment to gather a band of forces.

Mughal Victory at Mahmudabad:

• Imad-ul-Mulk's forces clashed with the Mughal forces led by Humayun at Mahmudabad near Ahmadabad.
• In a fiercely contested battle, the Mughals triumphed.
• Following the victory, Ahmadabad was opened to the Mughals and was occupied soon in October 1535.

Humayun's Achievements:

• Within ten months of leaving Agra, Humayun had successfully overrun both Malwa and Gujarat.
• Humayun displayed great drive, determination, and personal courage throughout the campaign, and he deserves full credit for this achievement.

Arrangements in Gujarat 

Humayun's Dilemma with Gujarat:

• Humayun faced a dilemma regarding the future of Gujarat after his victory there.
• The nobles were divided on the issue, with many preferring to stay in the Agra-Delhi region where they had settled after Babur established his rule.
• With the flight of Bahadur Shah and the seizure of his treasures, some nobles felt the main goals of the expedition were met.

Suggestions from Nobles:

• Hindu Beg and other nobles proposed giving Gujarat back to Bahadur Shah after paying the soldiers and keeping some treasures.
• Jauhar, Humayun’s ewer-bearer, noted Humayun's anger at this suggestion.

Humayun's Decision:

• Humayun, like Babur after Panipat, believed that a conquered empire should not be easily discarded.
• He decided to organize and administer Gujarat directly from Delhi.
• Humayun appointed Askari as the overall in charge of Gujarat, with Hindu Beg assisting him.

Division of Gujarat:

• Gujarat was divided into five divisions, each managed by a prominent noble.
• This system was similar to Babur’s administration of the Doab.
• Nobles were responsible for establishing law and order and collecting land revenue, with a portion sent to the Imperial treasury.

Humayun's Headquarters at Mandu:

• After setting up the administration, Humayun traveled to Mandu.
• He chose Mandu as his headquarters for its pleasant climate and central location, allowing him to oversee both Gujarat and northern India.
• Humayun planned a long stay in Mandu, inviting his family to join him.

Collapse of arrangement 

After Askari left Gujarat, the administrative arrangements he set up quickly fell apart. Askari struggled to coordinate with the nobles overseeing different regions, and the nobles were unwilling to stay in Gujarat, which they viewed as a foreign land.

• Regional independence in Gujarat and a resurgence of Bahadur Shah’s power contributed to the collapse.
• In a desperate move, Hindu Beg suggested that Askari declare independence to gain local support.
• Askari wisely rejected this idea, but rumors of his supposed intentions spread.
• His declaration of kingship while intoxicated further caused disorder among the Mughal nobility.
• Only strong intervention from Humayun could have stabilized the situation, but he failed to take action, possibly due to overconfidence or fatigue.
• Meanwhile, Bahadur Shah, operating from Surat, reclaimed Cambay and Broach and advanced towards Ahmadabad.
• Despite Bahadur Shah's small force, Askari and Hindu Beg lacked the resolve to confront him and retreated to Champaner.
• If the Mughals had been united, Champaner could have served as a base for a counterattack.
• Tardi Beg, the commandant of Champaner, fearing Askari's independence plans, denied him entry and assistance without direct orders from Humayun.
• As a result, Askari left for Agra in frustration, and most Mughals withdrew from Gujarat, following him.
• Humayun, worried about Askari's potential declaration of independence in Agra, pursued him.
• The two reconciled at Chittor.
• Malwa was also lost around February 1537.

Evaluation of Gujarat compaign 

Humayun's Gujarat Expedition: A Mixed Legacy

• The Gujarat expedition, despite its challenges, played a significant role in shaping Humayun's leadership and the Mughal Empire's trajectory.

Strengthening Leadership: 

• Humayun's campaign in Gujarat showcased him as a dynamic leader and fearless commander. It effectively neutralized the threat posed by Bahadur Shah, securing the Mughal position in the region.

Bahadur Shah's Downfall: 

• Following the Gujarat campaign, Bahadur Shah was eliminated in a confrontation with the Portuguese, further stabilizing Mughal authority and allowing Humayun to focus on other pressing challenges.

Strategic Missteps: 

• In hindsight, Humayun's decision to directly administer Gujarat and his subsequent withdrawal was questionable. A prolonged stay in Ahmedabad would have facilitated effective administration and won local support, especially since threats from Malwa and Sher Khan were manageable at the time.

Misjudging the Threat: 

• Humayun underestimated the situation in Gujarat post-conquest and misread the intentions of his nobles. His initial overconfidence in Askari and later suspicion of him contributed to the challenges faced.

Popular Reaction: 

• The local response to the Mughal conquest was more about regional pride than widespread dissent. The uprising by the Kolis and villagers in Cambay was largely motivated by the prospect of plunder. Humayun's harsh reprisal against Cambay was seen as excessive.

Imperial Unity vs. Regional Independence: 

• The events in Gujarat highlighted the ongoing tension between imperial authority and regional autonomy, a recurring theme in Indian history.

The Bengal Campaign, and Struggle with Sher Khan 

Background of Humayun's Campaign:

• Humayun returned from the Gujarat campaign uncertain about his next steps.
• Initially, he planned another campaign against Gujarat to ensure stable administration before returning.

Shift in Focus to Bengal:

• While preparing for the Gujarat campaign, Humayun became aware of Sher Khan's increasing power and decided to capture Bengal, a project he had previously started before the Gujarat campaign.
• Abul Fazl notes that the primary motive for Humayun’s eastern campaign was the conquest of Bengal, not just the punishment of Sher Khan.

Humayun's Campaign Timeline:

• In July 1537, Humayun left Agra during the rainy season and moved towards Chunar Fort.
• After a stay in Banaras, he decided to invest Chunar to secure his communications for the march into Bengal.

Challenges in the Campaign:

• The capture of Chunar Fort took longer than expected despite efforts by Humayun’s master-gunner, Rumi Khan.
• By the time Chunar fell in June 1538, Sher Khan had already captured Gaur, the capital of Bengal.

Negotiations with Sher Khan:

• After the conquest of Chunar, Humayun offered Sher Khan a jagir (land grant) if he submitted and gave up his claims to Bengal.
• Humayun underestimated the Afghan challenge, viewing Sher Khan merely as a leading Afghan sardar who could be appeased with a jagir.

Sher Khan's Ambitions:

• Sher Khan aimed to conquer Bengal to augment his power and wealth without facing direct Mughal hostility.
• After establishing control over Bihar, Sher Khan had to fend off several Bengali invasions and eventually took the fight into Bengal.

Negotiation Dynamics:

• Sher Khan, seeing himself as an independent ruler, was surprised by Humayun’s demand for Bengal and offered to leave Bihar to Humayun while paying an annual tribute from Bengal.
• The negotiations indicated that Sher Khan no longer considered himself subordinate to Humayun.

Shift in Humayun's Plans:

• Humayun initially accepted Sher Khan’s offer of Bihar but changed his mind when Mahmud Shah, the defeated king of Bengal, urged him to continue the campaign due to ongoing resistance in Bengal.
• Abul Fazl noted this as an additional reason for Humayun's conquest of Bengal.

The Lure of Treasures:

• The lure of immense hoarded treasures in Bengal was a significant factor for Humayun in displacing the Bengal king, rather than reinstating him.
• Mahmud Shah, viewed as a usurper by many, faced little local resistance during Humayun's conquest of Bengal.

Humayun's Ambitions:

• Humayun's keen interest in conquering Bengal, despite its independent king, could be attributed to the lure of treasure and a desire to recreate the Sultanate of Delhi.
• Had Humayun succeeded in Bengal, reconquering Gujarat and Malwa would have been more feasible.

Clash of Ambitions:

• The conflict between Humayun and Sher Khan represented a struggle between two ambitious leaders envisioning a united India north of the Vindhyas.
• The question was which leader—the Mughals or the Afghans—would achieve this vision.

Conquest and stay of Humayun in bengal 

Sher Khan's Detainment of Humayun:

• Sher Khan detained Humayun at Sikrigalli, the entrance of Bengal, until he could transport most of the Bengal treasures to his new refuge, Fort Rohtas.
• After this, Humayun had a smooth journey to Gaur.

Humayun's Challenges in Bengal:

• Upon arriving in Bengal, similar to his earlier experience in Gujarat, Humayun struggled with governance.
• However, unlike in Gujarat, he believed that staying in Bengal for a while was necessary to establish some level of stability in the administration.
• He likely reached Gaur after the rainy season, around September 1538, and left early the following year.

Humayun's Activities in Bengal:

• Despite his challenges, Humayun was not entirely inactive during his stay. He received foreign envoys and sent Shaikh Bahlol to intervene with Hindal, who was rebelling in Agra.
• He also engaged in various festivities.
• Unlike in Gujarat, there was no significant local resistance to Mughal rule in Bengal.

Struggles with Mughal Nobles:

• Humayun's time in Bengal did not the fundamental issue he faced in Gujarat: the Mughal nobles were unwilling to stay far from what they considered their home.
• They viewed Bengal as a foreign land and showed little interest in its administration.
• According to Abul Fazl, the high-ranking officers who received large territories in fief focused more on personal enjoyment than on governance.
• Humayun, either due to his easygoing nature or a desire to avoid conflict, did not reprimand them for this negligence.

Hindal’s rebellion in Agra and Humayun leaves Bengal 

Humayun's Challenges in Bengal and Internal Rivalries:

• When Humayun learned about the expansion of Hindal's rebellion in Agra, he decided to leave Bengal. He offered Zahid Beg, an old servant, the governorship of Bengal. Zahid Beg sarcastically declined, leading Humayun to order his execution. Zahid Beg then fled to Agra with Haji Muhammad and Dindar Beg.
• After establishing a government in Bengal, Humayun faced difficulties during his return journey as many of his horses died due to the Bengal climate. Meanwhile, Sher Khan had captured Banaras, besieged Chunar and Jaunpur, and devastated Mughal territories up to Kannauj and Sambhal.
• Sher Khan's capture of Mongyr disrupted communications between Humayun and Agra. Humayun's absence from Agra exposed internal rivalries with his brothers Askari and Hindal.
• Before entering Bengal, Humayun had instructed Hindal to gather provisions for the army from Tirhut and Purnia. However, Hindal, without permission, went to Agra. Many dissatisfied Mughal nobles joined him there, leading Hindal to declare himself an independent king and march on Delhi.
• Hindal's attempt to take Delhi was thwarted when the Mughal commander refused him entry, forcing him to return to Agra. In response to Hindal's rebellion,Kamran advanced from Lahore and convinced Hindal to abandon his ambitions of independence.
• Meanwhile, Humayun managed to reach Chausa, on the border of Bihar and modern Uttar Pradesh. Despite facing Afghan attacks and demoralization within his army, Humayun's ability to bring his forces out of Bengal and Bihar almost intact was a significant achievement.

Evaluation of Bengal compaign 

Humayun's Bengal Campaign: A Misguided Venture:

• Humayun's campaign in Bengal was poorly planned and executed.
• He should have followed Babur's strategy, limiting his expansion to Chunar or Bihar.
• The Mughal Empire was still fragile, and the nobility was not disciplined enough to manage distant territories effectively.
• Humayun lacked the local support necessary for such an ambitious campaign.
• A more prudent approach would have been to allow local rulers in regions like Gujarat, Malwa, and Bengal to govern under Mughal suzerainty.
• Despite his disorganized army, Humayun underestimated his Afghan rivals and overestimated Mughal strength.
• After reaching Chausa, he was confident of defeating the Afghans and chose to confront them rather than retreating to Agra.
• Humayun was unlikely to accept Sher Khan's peace offer at this time, which would have involved ceding Bengal, the fortress of Chunar, and other lands in exchange for Bihar and loyalty.
• Giving up Bengal after its conquest would have signified defeat for Humayun.

Battle of Chausa 

Battle of Chausa (26 June 1539): Humayun's Defeat Against Sher Khan:

• Humayun faced Sher Khan at Chausa but made a crucial mistake by positioning the Karmansa River behind his army, complicating any potential retreat.
• His troop placements were poor, and he was caught off guard by Sher Khan's tactics.
• After the defeat, Humayun was forced to retreat to Agra.

Kamran's Refusal to Assist:

• Kamran had a strong force of 10,000 troops but refused to place them under Humayun's command due to a lack of confidence in Humayun's military abilities.
• He ignored Humayun's urgent request for reinforcements at Chausa, fearing that a successful Humayun might later try to oust him from Lahore.

Kamran's Withdrawal and Its Impact:

• Kamran soon withdrew from Agra to Lahore, claiming illness.
• This withdrawal significantly hindered Humayun's efforts to confront Sher Khan again.

Battle of Kannuaj 

Battle of Kannuaj (1540):

• Fought on 17 May 1540, the battle was intense, but the outcome was clear from the start.
• The Afghans successfully scattered the Mughal army, causing them to flee in panic and confusion.
• Humayun managed to escape the battlefield, but for the next 15 years, he lived as a wanderer.

Sher Khan's Rise:

• With the victory, Sher Khan was now positioned to expel the Mughals from India.
• He was also better equipped to pursue Humayun's vision of unifying northern India under a single authority.

Evaluation of Humayun’s Afghan policy 

Humayun's Underestimation of the Afghan Challenge:

• Humayun failed to grasp the seriousness of the Afghan threat and underestimated Sher Khan's capabilities.
• The presence of numerous warlike Afghan tribes throughout north India meant that they could unite under a strong leader, posing a significant challenge.

Mughal Nobility and Regional Loyalty:

• The Mughal nobility was divided and reluctant to serve far from the Agra-Delhi region, where they felt most at home.
• This lack of unity and commitment contributed significantly to Humayun's failures in Gujarat and against Sher Khan.

Humayun's Brothers and Internal Support:

• The opposition from Humayun's brothers and his personal flaws have been overemphasized by historians.
• Despite their differences, brothers Askari and Hindal loyally supported Humayun until his Bengal expedition.
• Kamran also did not oppose Humayun initially, even helping to suppress Hindal's rebellion.
• It was only after Humayun's defeat at Chausa that his brothers turned against him.

Humayun as a Ruler and General:

• Despite periods of inactivity, Humayun demonstrated himself to be a vigorous ruler and a capable general.
• However, he faced a formidable opponent in Sher Khan, who proved to be a better tactician and more skilled military leader.

Humayun's Vision and Limitations:

• Humayun was somewhat ahead of his time in his ambition to unify north India under a single rule.
• However, this goal was unachievable given the limitations of the Mughal ruling class and their inability to establish a strong foothold in India so quickly.

Aftermath 

Humayun's Struggle and Journey:

• After retreating from Agra to Lahore, Humayun and his brothers were unsure about how to confront Sher Khan.
• Kamran accepted the loss of Punjab to Sher Khan but wanted to keep Kabul.
• Humayun decided to go to Sindh, aiming to conquer Gujarat and continue his fight against Sher Khan from there.
• Humayun spent two and a half years in Sindh, where he fell in love with Hamida, the daughter of a sheikh. In 1542, Hamida gave birth to Akbar.
• Despite his efforts, the rulers of Sindh and Maldeo, the powerful ruler of Marwar, were unwilling to support Humayun. Although Maldeo initially invited him, he ultimately rejected Humayun due to the small size of his following.
• After numerous challenges, Humayun found refuge at the court of Shah Tahmasp, the Iranian king. With Shah Tahmasp's assistance, Humayun was able to recapture Qandhar and then Kabul.

Impact of Humayun’s Persian exile 

Return from Exile and Persian Influence:

• Humayun, upon returning from exile in Persia, brought back thousands of Persian soldiers and nobles. This significantly boosted Persian cultural and political influence within the Mughal Empire.
• Pertaining to administration, Persian governance methods were introduced in Kashmir during Humayun's reign. The system of revenue collection was enhanced by integrating Persian models with those of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Persion arts gained prominence, leading to the creation of Persion-style miniatures at Mughal and later Rajput courts.
• The Chaghatai language, once used by Babur in his memoirs, faded from the courtly elite’s usage, with Akbar being unable to speak it. Humayun, in his later years, often quoted Persian poetry.

Humayun's Character and Leadership:

• During his period of wandering without a kingdom, Humayun's nobility and character shone through. Even while governing Afghanistan, he harbored no ill will towards his brothers.
• His decision to blind Kamran, despite his repeated rebellions, was more about nobility pressure than personal animosity.

Restoration of the Mughal Empire 

Key Events After Sher Shah Suri's Death:

• Sher Shah Suri died in 1545.
• His son Islam Shah succeded him but died in 1554.
• These deaths caused the dynasty to weaken and fragment.

Rise of the Mughals:

• With the Suri dynasty in disarray, the Mughals saw an opportunity to return to India.
• Humayun, the Mughal leader, gathered a large army led by Bairam Khan to attempt to reclaim the throne in Delhi.
• This was a strategic move as Bairam Khan proved to be an effective military tactician, compensating for Humayun's past military failures.

Humayun's Death:

• After regaining the throne, Humayun did not last long.
• He died after falling from the top floor of his library.
• While descending the staircase with books, he paused to kneel in reverence when he heard the Adhan(call to prayer).
• In doing so, he tripped, fell down the stairs, and struck his head on a stone, leading to his death three days later.
• This incident symbolized the ups and downs of his life, marking the end of one era and the beginning of another in Mughal history.

Chronology

Accession of Humayun:

• 30 Dec. 1530: Humayun becomes the ruler of the Mughal Empire.

Bahadur Shah annexes Malwa:

• March 1531: Bahadur Shah expands his territory by annexing Malwa.

Humayun besieges Kalinjar:

• July 1531: Humayun lays siege to the fort of Kalinjar.

Humayun's first siege of Chunar:

• Aug. – Sep. 1531: Humayun attempts to capture Chunar.

Humayun at Agra:

• Oct. 1531-Sep. 1532: Humayun establishes his presence in Agra.

Battle of Dadrah:

• Oct. 1532: Humayun engages in the Battle of Dadrah.

Bahadur Shah's first attack on Chittor:

• Nov. – Dec. 1532: Bahadur Shah launches an attack on Chittor.

Humayun at Gwaliyar:

• Feb. – March 1532: Humayun is present at Gwaliyar.

Bahadur raises siege of Chittor:

• March 1533: Bahadur Shah lifts the siege of Chittor.

Humayun at Delhi—Foundation of Din Panah:

• July 1533 – July 1534: Humayun establishes Din Panah in Delhi.

Humayun leaves for Kalpi:

• Sep. 1534: Humayun departs for Kalpi.

Humayun returns to Agra:

• Nov. 1534: Humayun returns to Agra.

Bahadur Shah's 2nd attack on Chittor:

• Nov. 1534: Bahadur Shah makes a second attempt to capture Chittor.

Defeat of Tatar Khan:

• Nov. 1534: Tatar Khan faces defeat.

Humayun leaves Agra for Sarangpur in Malwa:

• Jan. 1534: Humayun departs from Agra for Sarangpur.

Fall of Chittor:

• March 1535: Chittor falls to Bahadur Shah.

Defeat of Bahadur at Mandsor:

• Apr. 1535: Bahadur Shah is defeated at Mandsor.

Fall of Mandu:

• June 1535: Mandu is captured.

Capture of Champanir:

• Aug. 1535: Champanir is taken.

Capture of Ahmadabad:

• Oct. 1535: Ahmadabad is captured.

Humayun reaches Mandu:

• mid-1536: Humayun arrives at Mandu.

Anti-Mughal revolt in Gujarat:

• Nov. 1536: A revolt against the Mughal rule erupts in Gujarat.

Humayun returns to Agra:

• Feb. 1537: Humayun makes his way back to Agra.

Humayun leaves for the East:

• July 1537: Humayun departs for eastern territories.

Siege of Chunar:

• Jan. – June 1538: Humayun lays siege to Chunar.

Humayun at Gaur:

• Oct. 1538: Humayun is present at Gaur.

Humayun leaves Gaur:

• Jan. 1539: Humayun departs from Gaur.

Battle of Chausa:

• June 1539: Humayun fights in the Battle of Chausa.

Battle of Kannauj:

• May 1540: Humayun engages in the Battle of Kannauj.