The Sur Empire: Sher Shah’s Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Sher Shah's Rise and Empire Building Process:

• Sher Shah started as a small military leader and became the ruler of a vast empire in North India after Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, thanks to his bravery and determination.
• The process of building an empire in North India began with Sikandar Lodi's victory over Jaunpur and continued with Babur and Humayun.
• Babur's victories over Ibrahim Lodi and Rana Sanga, along with Humayun's campaigns in Malwa and Gujarat, disrupted the existing balance of power.
• Sher Khan's defeat of Bengal and Humayun's campaigns in Bihar and Bengal against Sher Khan were crucial in this process.
• The struggle between Sher Khan and Humayun determined who would dominate almost all of North India.
• Although Sher Shah unified North India under one rule, he could not complete the empire-building process as Gujarat remained outside his control. It was Akbar who ultimately finished this process.
• Sher Shah's achievement of unifying North India was part of a historical process that had been ongoing for nearly fifty years.

Sher Shah’s Early Life, and Rise to Power

Rise of Sher Shah to Power:

• Sher Shah's rise from a small noble to supreme power was influenced by the social and political conditions in North India that favored bold and unscrupulous individuals.
• Political duplicity and intrigue were evident in Sher Shah's early life.
• His grandfather,Ibrahim Sur, a petty horse-trader from Afghanistan, came to India during the reign of Ibrahim Lodi.
• Sher Shah's father,Hasan Sur, became a leader of Afghan free-booters and was later appointed to charge of the pargana of Narnaul.
• Ahnad Khan Sarangkhani, governor of Jaunpur, appointed Hasan Sur to strengthen his position in a region dominated by old Jaunpuri nobles.
• Hasan Sur's appointment with a rank of 500 sawars marked his rise to a small noble status, reflecting the need for bold and adventurous men to settle areas under old local control.

Sher Shah's Background:

• Sher Shah's grandfather, Ibrahim Sur, was a petty horse trader from Afghanistan who moved to India during the decline of the Lodi dynasty.
• His early support came from Jamal Khan Lodi Sarangkhani, who granted him villages in Hissar-Firuza to maintain a troop of 40 soldiers.

Expansion of Power:

• Under Jamal Khan's son, Khan-i-Azam Ahmad Khan Sarangkhani, Hasan Sur was given the iqta of Sahsaram and Khawaspur-Tanda, significantly increasing his rank and influence.
• This promotion elevated Hasan Sur to a position of nobility, reflecting the era's need for dynamic leaders to assert control over regions still dominated by traditional local powers.

Early life of Farid

Farid, later known as Sher Shah, was born in 1486 in Narnaul during the rule of Bahlol Lodi.

• His early life was marked by anger towards his father, who neglected Farid's mother for a younger Indian slave girl. This led Farid to Jaunpur, where he spent years studying religious texts, Arabic, and history at a prominent madrasah.
• Eventually reconciled with his father, Farid was given administrative responsibilities over two parganas, gaining firsthand experience in local administration.
• Farid faced challenges from Rajput zamindars and dealt with them by clearing jungles and, in extreme cases, resorting to violence against disobedient villages.
• In 1519, due to his stepmother's conspiracies, Farid lost his position and turned to robbery, targeting Hindu rajas and zamindars in Bihar.
• He later served under various commanders, eventually entering the service of Darya Khan naib in Agra.
• Farid petitioned Ibrahim Lodi to dismiss his father from his jagir, but after Ibrahim's death, he took control of his father's property with the Sultan's support.
• Conflicts with his step-brothers over the jagir led Farid to seek alliances and assert his claim, emphasizing that the jagir should go to the Sultan's choice rather than be divided among sons.
• After Ibrahim Lodi's defeat, Farid, later titled Sher Khan, became a significant figure in Bihar's politics.
• The conflict between Sher Khan and Humayun is often seen as a struggle between Afghans and Mughals, overlooking the social and political dynamics of eastern U.P. and Bihar.
• The Nuhanis' attempt to establish their kingdom in Bihar against Bengal and Mughal rule was a crucial political factor.
• The Sarwanis and Farmulis in east U.P. aimed to restore Jaunpur's old kingdom, destabilizing the Nuhani regime in Bihar.
• After Sultan Muhammad's death, the Nuhani dynasty in Bihar ended, leading to conflicts over the division of iqta within Afghan noble families.
• Babur capitalized on this division by winning over some Afghan nobles, but many rallied for Afghan nationalism.
• With threats from Sanga and later under Humayun from Bahadur Shah, the Mughals struggled to maintain their jagirs against Afghan rivals.
• Sher Khan was among those who defected.
• When Dudu, Muhammad Shah's widow, gained power after her husband's death, she trusted Sher Khan with her son Jalal's guardianship.
• Similarly, when Taj Khan Sarangkhani died, his wife Lad Malika inherited his wealth and power, proposing marriage to Sher Khan, further strengthening his position.
• Sher Khan also gained wealth from other marriages, including from Gauhar Gosain and Bibi Fath Malika.
• He played a significant role in Babur's battles against Afghan leaders, despite being compelled to join the rebels.
• Sher Khan's absence from the battle of Dadrah did not cause the Afghan leaders' defeat, which was due to their internal divisions and lack of a clear battle plan.
• Babur restored the Nuhani kingdom of Bihar under Jalal to counter the growing power of Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal.
• With Dudu unable to manage the state, Sher Khan became the de facto ruler of Bihar, centralizing power and improving administration.
• Conflicts with Nuhani chiefs and the ongoing Bihar-Bengal conflict provided Sher Khan with opportunities to consolidate his power.
• After defeating Sultan Nusrat Shah's forces, Sher Khan became a dominant figure in Bihar, defeating Sultan Mahmud of Bengal and expanding his influence.
• Sher Khan’s rise was facilitated by the fluid political situation in eastern U.P. and Bihar, Mughal preoccupations elsewhere, and the ongoing Bihar-Bengal conflict.
• His victories over Bengal and strong leadership made him more powerful and confident than Humayun anticipated.

The Sur Empire (1540-56)

Consolidation after Humayun’s defeat

• Sher Shah, after defeating Humayun at Kannauj, crowned himself and aimed to drive the Mughals out of India, capitalizing on their internal divisions.
• In Lahore, Kamran, Humayun's brother, hindered Humayun's efforts, forcing him to seek refuge in Sindh. As Sher Shah approached, Kamran retreated to Kabul, while other leaders moved to consolidate their power elsewhere.
• Sher Shah's forces advanced to the Khyber Pass but chose not to incorporate the independent Afghan tribes into his empire, keeping his boundaries clear.
• To secure his empire, Sher Shah defeated the Gakhhars in the Salt Ranges and built a strong fort at Rohtas to prevent Mughal incursions.
• He sent expeditions to Multan to disrupt Humayun's support and later aimed to liberate it from the Biloch tribes to protect trade routes.
• After securing Punjab and the North West, Sher Shah focused on establishing a robust administration rather than further conquests.
• In Bengal, he quelled potential rebellions and asserted control in Malwa, Rajasthan, and beyond, preparing for future campaigns.
• He invaded Malwa in 1542, allowing local Hindu rajas to retain power, and later targeted Chanderi and Rajasthan, exploiting Rajput divisions.
• In the Battle of Sammel, Sher Shah's strategic advantages led to the defeat of Rao Maldeo, expanding his control over Rajasthan.
• He aimed for Gujarat and Bundelkhand but died during the siege of Kalinjar in 1545, leaving a strong legacy.
• Sher Shah's son,Islam Shah, faced civil strife but continued centralization efforts, shifting the capital and reorganizing the nobility.
• Islam Shah's harsh policies led to resentment among Afghan nobles, contributing to the Sur empire's decline after his death in 1554.

Administration and Contribution of Sher Shah and Islam Shah

Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah):

• Written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a waqia-navis (historian) during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar around 1580.
• Documented in Persian, the text provides a detailed account of Sher Shah's administration.
• It serves as an important historical source, highlighting the governance and policies implemented by Sher Shah.

Law and Order

Sher Shah's Contributions to Law and Order:

• Short Reign, Lasting Impact: Sher Shah ruled for only five years but made significant contributions.
• Establishing Law and Order: His primary achievement was creating a system of law and order throughout the empire.
• Road Safety: Sher Shah focused on making roads safe by taking strong action against robbers and dacoits.
• Control Over Zamindars: He believed that controlling zamindars (landowners) was crucial for road safety, especially since some were colluding with criminals.
• Action Against Fath Khan Jat: Sher Shah dealt firmly with Fath Khan Jat, who had caused chaos in the Lakhi Jungle area and disturbed peace from Lahore to Delhi.
• Governors' Role: The governors of different regions, like Sambhal, Lucknow, and Kannauj, were tasked with suppressing rebellious zamindars and ensuring law and order by punishing thieves and highway robbers.
• Comprehensive Law and Order: Establishing law and order involved not just making roads safe but also holding zamindars and common people accountable for paying land revenue and following imperial orders.

Roads

Sher Shah's Emphasis on Roads and Communications:

• Sher Shah focused on improving roads and the system of communications to assist military movements and promote trade and commerce.
• The roads also helped in maintaining greater control over the countryside.
• Sher Shah restored the old imperial road from the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal, known as the Shershah Suri Marg.
• He built a road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor, connecting to roads leading to the sea-ports of Gujarat.
• Another road was constructed from Lahore to Multan, serving as a starting point for caravans to west and central Asia.
• A fourth road was built from Agra to Burhanpur, again linking it with roads to the sea-ports of Gujarat.

Sarais and Dak Chauki (Postoffice)

Sher Shah's Sarais and Road Safety Measures:

• Sarais (rest houses) were built along highways every two karohs (about 4 miles) to ensure safety and comfort for travelers.
• These sarais had separate accommodations for Hindus and Muslims, with beds and cooked food provided by appointed cooks.
• Uncooked food supplies were given to Hindus who followed specific caste rules.
• Sher Shah established a rule where travelers at the sarai would be served food at government expense based on their rank, and their ponies would receive grain and water.
• A custodian (shahna) was appointed in each sarai to protect merchants' goods, and rent-free land was allocated nearby for the custodian's expenses, as well as for the imam and muezzin of the mosque built in each sarai.
• Sher Shah constructed 1,700 sarais, which were fortified inns, some of which still stand today.
• Markets were established in every sarai, and many became mandis where peasants sold their produce, contributing to the growth of towns (qasbas) centered around trade and handicrafts.
• The popularity of these sarais led to Islam Shah ordering the construction of a sarai between every two of Sher Shah's sarais.
• Sarais also served as dak chowkis (postal service), with two horses kept at each sarai, allowing news to travel 300 kos in a day.

Trade and Commerce

• Sher Shah implemented various measures to boost trade and commerce.
• He introduced uniform silver and copper coins, replacing the earlier mixed-metal coins.
• His silver rupee became a long-lasting standard coin.
• He introduced the system of tri-metalism, which later became characteristic of Mughal coinage.
• The term rupiya was standardized during his rule to signify a silver coin weighing 178 grains, laying the groundwork for the modern rupee.
• Sher Shah also worked on standardizing weights and measures.
• In his empire, customs duties were only charged twice on goods - at the point of entry and at the time of sale.
• For example, customs duty on goods coming from Bengal was levied at Garhi (Sikrigali), and for goods from Khurasan, duty was collected at the kingdom's border and again at the place of sale.
• The reason for treating Bengal produce as foreign merchandise is unclear.
• To ensure safety on the roads, Sher Shah made village headmen (muqaddams) and landowners (zamindars) responsible for apprehending thieves or compensating for losses. If a murder occurred and the culprit was not found, the muqaddam could face death.
• Although this practice of punishing the innocent alongside the guilty was harsh, it aimed to hold muqaddams accountable for local crimes.
• Sher Shah's methods proved effective, as noted by Abbas Sarwani, who remarked that under Sher Khan’s rule, even vulnerable travelers like an old woman carrying goods felt safe.
• Abbas Khan stressed the importance of road safety for the country’s population and prosperity.
• Sher Shah also instructed officials to treat travelers and merchants with respect, not to seize the property of deceased merchants without heirs, and to buy goods from merchants at market prices.
• Despite these directives, there were instances of their disregard, as seen later under Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

Revenue Reform

Sher Shah's Revenue System Reform:

• Sher Shah's most notable contribution was reforming the revenue system.
• He was well-qualified due to his experience with the existing system as his father's deputy and as the de facto ruler of Bihar for ten years post-1530.
• Sher Shah aimed to base land-revenue assessment on actual measurement rather than crop sharing or estimation.
• He opposed shifting the burden onto weaker sections by village headmen and zamindars.
• He introduced a system of measurement (zabt), which, although ancient, was revamped under his rule.
• Unlike the traditional method, which estimated crop yield through sample cuttings, Sher Shah's system categorized land into three types—good, bad, and middling—to compute average yield.
• The state's share was one-third of the average yield, forming the basis for crop-rate (ray) determination.
• Peasants could pay their dues in cash or kind, with a preference for cash.
• All regions, except Multan, were subject to this measurement system, with Multan maintaining the old system and a lower state share of one-fourth.
• Charges for measurement parties were established, and field measurements were conducted annually.
• A safeguard against famine was implemented through a cess of two and a half seers per bigha.
• Debate exists regarding the extent of these reforms across the empire and whether settlements were made with individual cultivators or village headmen and zamindars.
• While Abul Fazl noted the shift to measurement under Sher Shah and Islam Shah, it was primarily in settled areas during Akbar's reign.
• The initiation of the zabt system was a significant milestone, with each peasant's dues recorded on a patta.
• Despite comparisons to the British ryotwari system, modern research indicates that local headmen and zamindars played crucial roles in assessment and collection, with no effort to eliminate them.
• The medieval state aimed to limit their exactions rather than abolish them.

Attitude towards cultivators

Sher Shah's Care for Peasants:

• Understandinghe Raiyat: Sher Shah recognized that the humble raiyat (peasants) were crucial for agriculture. He believed that their happiness directly impacted agricultural productivity.
• Protecting Cultivated Fields: When his army marched, he ensured that cultivated fields were not harmed. Horsemen were stationed to prevent soldiers from entering farmers' cultivated land, and strict action was taken against those who violated this rule.
• Compensation for Damage: If cultivated land was accidentally damaged due to the narrowness of the passage, trustworthy officials (amins) were appointed to measure the damaged portion and compensate the raiyat.
• Support for Loyal Peasants: Sher Shah's support was extended only to peasants who were loyal, followed imperial regulations, and paid their dues without delay.
• Punishment for Delinquent Zamindars: Zamindars and their followers who failed to make payments or did not attend to the amils (revenue officers) faced severe consequences. Their villages could be captured, men killed, women and children enslaved, and their property seized. New peasants would then be settled in the area.
• Traditional Practice: This harsh treatment of delinquent zamindars was apparently a traditional practice during Sher Shah's time.

System of government

Sher Shah Suri's Administrative Innovations and Contributions

Sher Shah Suri laid the groundwork for a centralized bureaucracy, which was later refined by Akbar. Sher Shah's administrative structure included key positions such as:

• Muqaddam(village headman): Responsible for maintaining law and order in the village, acting as a link between the government and the village.
• Pargana(administrative unit): Comprised several villages and was overseen by officials like the shiqdar(law and order and revenue collection) and munsif(land measurement).
• Shiq(subdivision): Above the pargana, with increasing use of the term sarkar for administrative units.
• Sarkar(district): Headed by faujdar or muqta, responsible for law and order and revenue collection.
• Provincial Organization: Sher Shah grouped multiple shiqs for administrative efficiency, especially in turbulent areas.

A notable feature of Sher Shah's administration was his emphasis on personal oversight and discipline. He reintroduced the branding system for horses and detailed descriptive rolls for soldiers, maintaining strict control over military organization.

Sher Shah's military organization included a large personal army and nobles commanding smaller units, with soldiers often paid through land assignments. Despite this, the traditional departments continued under his watchful eye, ensuring effective governance.

Justice System: Sher Shah emphasized justice, believing it to be of utmost importance. Civil cases for Muslims were handled by the qazi, while criminal cases were tried by the shiqdar. Panchayats and caste bodies provided civil law for Hindus, and muqaddams were responsible for detecting crimes.

Architectural Contributions: The Surs, under Sher Shah, made significant architectural advancements, particularly in the Lodi style. The first phase saw the construction of tombs, including Sher Shah's own mausoleum at Sasaram, built in a pond with a causeway, showcasing strength and harmony.

The second phase in Delhi included the construction of Purana Qila, intended as the sixth city of Delhi, with impressive battlements and the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque inside it. Sher Shah's architectural projects laid the foundation for future Mughal developments.

Qilsai Kuhna Masjid

The Qila-i-Kuhna mosque, built around 1542, is the only structure within the Purana Qila citadel that has survived over time.

Architectural Features:

Facade

• Five arched entrances, with the central one larger than the others.
• Each entrance has an open archway set within a recess.
• Mihrab
• A semicircular niche indicating the qibla, the direction Muslims face when praying.
• Each mihrab is set within a rectangular frame.
• Materials and Design
• The facade is made of black and white marble and red sandstone.
• Narrow, fluted pilasters flank the central arch.
• The arches feature a slight drop towards the crown, a precursor to the Tudor arch style.
• Windows and Roof
• The three central archways include oriol windows inspired by Rajasthan architecture.
• Narrow turrets on either side of the central bay and at the back corners provide structural balance to the flat roof.
• Historical Context
• The mosque represents the peak of the Lodi architectural style and the transition to a new phase in Mughal architecture.
• Sher Shah Suri, the ruler behind these architectural advancements, is also known for constructing Rohtas Fort, various structures in Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, and the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna (1540–1545).
• Sher Shah's architectural projects, including the new city of Bhera in Pakistan and the Sher Shah Suri Masjid within it, reflect his deep understanding and appreciation for architecture.
• He also initiated the Humayun citadel in 1533, later expanded by Humayun, and built the Sher Mandal, an octagonal structure in the Purana Qila complex, which served as Humayun's library.
• Despite his support for religious figures and scholars, the Sur period was too brief to produce notable architectural works, with the exception of the Hindi poem Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jaisi from East Uttar Pradesh.

Character of the State under the Surs

Key Aspects of Sher Shah's State and Administration

• Sher Shah's state represented a blend of Afghan and Turkish sovereignty theories.
• Afghan nobles could aspire to suzerainty but were not equal partners in the kingdom.
• Despite being a despot, Sher Shah managed the nobles through spies and maintained control while addressing their needs.
• Nobles in charge of sarkar or wilayat had limited powers and were guided by royal farman.
• Sher Shah was an absolute monarch, exemplified by his policy on Afghan colonies in stubborn regions.
• The nobility was organized to protect the dynasty's interests, with no single group strong enough to become a pressure group.
• Non-Afghan nobles held important positions, indicating Sher Shah's disregard for a purely Afghan nobility.
• While the nobility was mainly Afghan, Sher Shah also recruited Afghans to strengthen his support.
• Sher Shah balanced his authoritarian rule with generosity and benevolence, providing for the disabled and needy.
• He was a devout Muslim but not bigoted, treating different communities fairly.
• Sher Shah continued the collection of jizyah but framed it as a city tax.
• He granted rent-free lands to various groups, including brahmans and temples.
• Islam Shah, Sher Shah's successor, limited the ulama's influence and broadened opportunities for Hindus in administration.
• Under Adali, a successor of Islam Shah, Hindus like Hemu rose to high positions, indicating a shift towards a more inclusive ruling class.
• This shift laid the groundwork for a broader social base in the ruling class, a change that would fully materialize under Akbar.

Sher Shah combined in himself qualities of lion and fox

Sher Shah's Military Tactics: Planning and Bravery

Planning Like a Fox: Sher Shah's military campaigns often showcased his clever tricks and tactics, reflecting his political shrewdness.

• In 1537 at Rohtas, he outsmarted a Hindu Raja who had agreed to shelter Afghan women, leading to the fort's capture.
• During his campaign against Chanderi in 1543, he deceitfully promised the Rajputs safety by swearing on the Quran, only to betray them upon their surrender.
• In 1539 at Chausa, he attacked unsuspecting Mughal soldiers while they were asleep.
• To capture Jodhpur, he forged letters to sow distrust among the Rajputs.

Attacking Like a Lion: Sher Shah demonstrated boldness and bravery in leading military campaigns against the powerful Mughal army.

• His enlightened despotism as Sultan was evident in various reforms and improvements.
• He strengthened administration, implemented currency and revenue reforms, and systematized the military by reintroducing dagh and chehra.
• He built highways, ensured amenities for travelers, delivered justice, supported learned individuals, and maintained a liberal attitude towards non-Muslim subjects.

Make a comparative review of the agrarian reforms of Alau-ud-Din Khalji and Sher Shah Suri.

Agrarian Reforms of Alau-ud-Din Khalji

Expanded Khalisa:

• The region closely linked with the government, stretching from Dipalpur and Lahore to Kara near present-day Allahabad, was brought under Khalisa. This land was not allocated to any nobles as Iqta.
• The land was measured using masahat, with Bishwa as the basic unit, and land revenue was determined based on the yield of each unit.
• The process of determining the produce per Bishwa was called wafa-i biswa, likely assessed individually for each cultivator's holding.
• Both intermediaries and peasants were subjected to the same revenue demand of 50%, regardless of their status.
• Kharaj, Jazia, Karai-Gharia-Charai were also imposed on peasants.
• The entitlements of intermediaries were eliminated.
• Taxes on grazing and houses (Ghari) were applied to intermediaries as well.
• Privileges of Khuts, Muqaddam, Choudhary, etc., were abolished.

Agrarian Reform of Sher Shah Suri:

• Sher Shah's reforms were influenced by Sultan Alauddin Khalji but implemented with less severity.
• Sher Shah appointed new revenue officials and reduced the powers of land assignees, making zamindars accountable for crimes within their boundaries.
• He introduced the Zabt system based on measurement and survey, using Sikandari Gaj for measurements.
• New systems like Patta and Quabooliyat were established, along with direct tax remittances to the government.
• Land under cultivation was measured annually, and the state’s share was determined according to royal regulations.
• Sher Shah divided lands into three categories based on soil fertility and fixed the state share at one-third of the standard yield.
• He prepared a rai for revenue collectors, allowing state shares to be converted into cash rates based on market prices.
• Sher Shah's revenue demand was lower than Khalji's, and he preferred cash collection, while Khalji collected in kind.
• Khalji's revenue demand was higher, and he imposed various other taxes on peasants.
• Sher Shah classified land based on soil fertility, a practice not present during Khalji's time.

Similarities:

• Both reforms enhanced government control over provincial revenue collection.
• Power of intermediaries was diminished in both systems.
• Introduction of measurement and survey systems was a common feature.
• Unruly elements were subdued during both reigns.

Differences:

• Sher Shah favored cash revenue collection, while Khalji preferred collection in kind for price control.
• Khalji's revenue demand often exceeded 50%, whereas Sher Shah's was only one-third of the total produce.
• Khalji imposed various taxes like Kharaj, Jazia, Karai-Gharia-Charai on peasants, while Sher Shah had a different approach.
• Sher Shah classified land based on soil fertility, a practice not seen during Khalji's time.
• Sher Shah's Ray system was a unique feature absent in Khalji's reforms.