The Social reform movements in India including Sati, Widow remarriage, Child marriage | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Social reform movements

• In the 18th century, India was influenced by conservative ideas and practices. However, the 19th century witnessed a surge of reform movements that sparked social awakening. This shift was driven by various factors, including English education, exposure to Western liberal thinkers, British administration, the efforts of Christian missionaries, the concepts of equality and the rule of law, contributions from the press.
• English education empowered Indians to challenge ignorance, apathy, lethargy, superstition, fatalism, sloth. The English language served as a crucial medium for disseminating Western ideas, providing a common platform for diverse groups.
• The early 19th century marked the advent of modern times in India, where people encountered new rulers and their unfamiliar way of life. Despite the British initially coming to India as traders and later establishing political power, they gradually adopted a broader perspective, fostering peace and order in society.
• Liberal British officers, such as Mountstuart Elphinstone, played a pivotal role by introducing English education in India. They believed in reason and opened schools and colleges where Indian students were exposed to the works of liberal thinkers like Francis Bacon, David Hume, others.
• Elphinstone, in particular, made significant contributions to Western education in Maharashtra. He established an education system influenced by thinkers like T. Erskine,Colebrook, John Locke, Jeremy Bentham.
• Elphinstone improved teaching methods in native schools, increased the number of schools, supplied school books, encouraged lower classes to receive education. He also promoted European sciences and higher branches of education, publishing books on moral and physical sciences in native languages.
• The efforts of Elphinstone and other reformers led to a questioning of outdated dogmas and a revolt against ignorance and superstition, fostering social and religious awakening.
• Christian missionaries also played a role by criticizing Hinduism and advocating for social and religious reforms. Their emphasis on equality and education, including schools for girls, inspired educated Indians to initiate reform movements.
• The contributions of the printing press and the work of orientalists in reviving India's past glory further fueled socio-religious reform movements in Maharashtra and across India in the 19th century.

Impact of English Education and Reform Movements in 19th Century India

• Introduction of English Education: English education in 19th century India was a pivotal force in shaping societal attitudes and fostering reform movements. It empowered individuals to question established norms and encouraged critical thinking.
• Critique of Traditional Norms: Educated Indians began to critique outdated dogmas, superstitions, social practices. They challenged beliefs that promoted ignorance and apathy, advocating for a more rational and progressive outlook.
• Influence of Western Liberal Thought: Exposure to Western liberal ideas through English education played a significant role in shaping reformist ideologies. Thinkers like Francis Bacon, John Locke, Jeremy Bentham influenced Indian intellectuals, promoting principles of reason, individual rights, social justice.
• Role of Christian Missionaries: Christian missionaries actively criticized traditional Hindu practices and promoted social equality. Their emphasis on education, including initiatives for girls’ education, sparked a desire for reform among educated Indians.
• Printing Press and Spread of Ideas: The printing press facilitated the dissemination of reformist literature, fostering awareness and dialogue on social issues. It played a crucial role in spreading liberal and reformist ideas across different sections of society.
• Emergence of Reform Movements: The combined impact of English education, exposure to Western thought, missionary activities, the printing press led to the emergence of various reform movements. These movements aimed to address social injustices, promote education, advocate for equality.
• Legacy of Reform Movements: The reform movements of the 19th century laid the groundwork for subsequent social and political changes in India. They fostered a spirit of inquiry, encouraged dialogue on social issues, contributed to the broader struggle for social justice and equality.
• Conclusion: In conclusion, the impact of English education and the various reform movements of the 19th century in India was profound. They collectively contributed to a shift in mindset, fostering a culture of questioning, critical thinking, a desire for social progress.

Nationalism and Social groups:

• The English-educated middle class focused on the religious, social, cultural renaissance in India, fostering a spirit of nationalism among both Hindus and Muslims.
• They began to critically analyze their own socio-religious conditions, realizing that their original religions had been corrupted by blind traditions, excessive rituals, customs, superstitions.
• This realization prompted a desire for reforms in their religions and social lives.
• The socio-religious reform movements significantly influenced the educated people in India, igniting a sense of renaissance or awakening among the masses.

Problems of Women

• Throughout history, the position of women in Indian society has changed significantly, with the Rig Vedic period being relatively positive for women. However, over time, their status deteriorated, making them more subordinate.
• The position of women is influenced by two main factors:social philosophy and social institutions. Social philosophy shapes cultural levels and societal outlooks, while social institutions, such as family and marriage, have historically not been supportive of women's rights.
• Social institutions like family, marriage, Hindu law, religion have created various problems for women. For example, the joint family system and contractual marriages have led to issues like incompatibility, child marriage, polygamy, restrictions on widow remarriage and divorce.
• The practice of sati, where a widow would self-immolate with her husband’s corpse, was driven by religious beliefs that promised spiritual rewards. This reflected the view of wives as property rather than companions, a perception that persisted from ancient times to modern days.
• The deterioration of women's status began during the Smriti period when women lost their independent status and became dependent on men for socio-economic matters. Over time, they became victims of social evils like female infanticide, seclusion, dowry, were denied education. These issues have persisted since ancient times.
• Indian women have faced severe problems throughout history, including child marriage, female infanticide, illiteracy, restrictions on widow remarriage, polygamy, concubinage, sati, restrictions on divorce. The purdah system, introduced by Muslim rule, became entrenched and was further enforced during the British period, severely restricting women's mobility and access to education and public spaces.
• The majority of women lived in conditions reminiscent of deaf and dumb driven cattle, with only a small number of urban elite women enjoying relative freedom.

Social Reforms and Women

• When the British arrived in India and established their rule, they enacted social legislations such as prohibition of female infanticide, sati, slavery, the widow remarriage Act. However, these measures faced resistance, leading to the uprising of 1857.
• In response, the British decided to limit their interference in social practices, as reflected in the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858. Despite this, a social reform movement emerged, fostering social awareness and securing reforms, particularly in the realm of women's emancipation.

Sati System

• The practice of sati, rooted in religious beliefs, involved women self-immolating with their deceased husbands, believed to purify sins and grant eternal union in heaven.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated for the improvement of Indian women's conditions by opposing sati, highlighting that many cases were coerced rather than voluntary.
• In response to orthodox petitions, Roy countered petitions in 1818, arguing against the compulsory nature of widow burning in Hindu scriptures.
• Roy published articles in English and his Bengali journal, Samvad Kaumudi, condemning sati.
• His efforts culminated in 1829, when Lord William Bentinck declared sati illegal.

Child Marriage

• Child marriage was a significant issue for women in the past. There was no minimum age for marriage, leading to the practice of marrying children as young as two to five years old. This contributed to problems like Sati, polygamy, concubinage.
• Reformers such as B. M. Malbari, R. G. Bhandarkar, M. G. Ranade worked to raise awareness about the consequences of child marriage. B. M. Malbari, a Parsi reformer, fought against this custom and influenced the British Government to pass the Act of 1860, which raised the age of consent for marriage from ten to twelve years.
• Social workers in Maharashtra challenged child marriage and pushed for the Act of 1872, which abolished early marriage, made polygamy a penal offense, sanctioned widow and inter-caste marriages. Despite this, child marriage persisted in Maharashtra.
• In 1880, B. M. Malbari published notes on widowhood and infant marriages, advocating for the inclusion of child marriage's evils in school curricula to raise awareness from an early age.
• Justice Ranade recommended laws to set the minimum age for girls' marriage at twelve and to punish violators. Despite opposition, Malbari went to England to urge the British Government to pass these laws.
• Due to Malbari's efforts, the Age of Consent Act of 1891 was enacted, marking a significant step towards women's emancipation. These efforts united enlightened and English-educated individuals in Maharashtra to improve conditions for women.
• Pandita Ramabai was another key figure in advocating for women's emancipation. Despite criticism for her marriage to a non-Brahmin, she established the Arya Mahila Samaj to support distressed women. Ramabai faced harassment from orthodox Brahmins, leading her to convert to Christianity and spend time in England and America.
• In 1889, Ramabai founded Sharda Sadan in Mumbai, later moving it to Pune with the support of M. G. Ranade and Bhandarkar. In 1930, the Sharda Act was passed, imposing penalties for marriages of girls under fourteen.

Female Education

• Illiteracy was a major issue for Indian women due to misunderstandings, superstitions, societal backwardness. Traditionally, parents prioritized spending on boys' education and marriage expenses for girls, including dowry, over their education.
• The situation began to change with the arrival of Christian Missionaries in India, who established convent schools for girls under the supervision of nuns. However, there were suspicions that these schools aimed to convert girls to Christianity. Despite being open to all castes and communities, this suspicion limited the number of girls benefiting from these schools.
• As English education spread, some educated individuals started to educate their daughters. R. C. Majumdar noted that the absence of the purda system in the Mumbai presidency encouraged people to educate their girls. The Students Literary and Scientific Society was founded to support female education.
• Prominent figures like Dadabhai Naoraji, B. M. Malbari, P. C. Banaji, the Camas began educating their daughters and establishing schools for girls, despite opposition from orthodox sections of their communities. Marathi industrialists like Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Dagi also contributed to female education in the Mumbai presidency.
• Social reformers such as B. M. Malbari, Ranade, Bhandarkar, Chandawarkar, Mahatma Jyotiba G. Phule, Pandita Ramabai were prominent in promoting female education. In 1851, Phule and his wife, Savitribai Phule, started a private school for girls. Other organizations also opened schools for girls in Mumbai and Poona, advancing the cause of female education.
• By 1891, it was acknowledged that the Mumbai presidency was ahead in female education. Inspectors like Capt. Lester noted that there were no obstacles to establishing schools for girls in the Mumbai presidency and neighboring areas due to the efforts of social reformers like Phule, Gokhale, Ranade, Agarkar.

 Widow Remarriage

• Women have faced the issue of widow remarriage for a long time. In upper-caste communities, widow remarriage was not accepted at all. Lower castes, in an attempt to imitate upper-caste practices, faced numerous problems, including the horrors of sati or lifelong widowhood. Widows were often excluded from participating in any social or religious events and were condemned to a life of isolation and aimlessness.
• Many social reformers worked to promote widow remarriage and assisted the government in enacting the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act in 1856. Despite these efforts, the situation did not improve significantly.
• In modern times, reformers like M. G. Ranade, Vishnu Shastri Pandit, D. K. Karve, Pandita Ramabai played active roles in promoting widow remarriage. They established various societies to support this cause.
• Among their initiatives were the Vidhava Vivaha Uttejak Mandal, the Widow Remarriage Association founded in 1893, the Anath Balikashram established in 1896 near Pune to provide shelter for destitute widows.
• Mahatma Jyotiba Govind Phule was particularly passionate about widow remarriage. He criticized other reformers who remarried widows but did not allow their relatives, such as sisters and daughters, to remarry if their husbands died young.
• In Hinduism, marriage was considered sacred and believed to be solemnized in heaven, making it irrevocable. This belief contributed to the prohibition of widow remarriage, causing immense suffering for Hindu women.
• Western-educated individuals began to challenge this orthodoxy, advocating for widow remarriage based on Vedic authority. Despite opposition from orthodox groups in Pune, social reformers like Vishnu Shastri debated the issue and raised awareness about widow remarriage.
• D. K. Karve took a significant step by marrying a widow, Godubai, in 1883, setting an example for others. He also established a Widow Home Association modeled after Sharda Sadan, founded by Pandita Ramabai.
• M. G. Ranade and Bhandarkar supported the Association for a long time, leading to increased societal awareness. Notably, D. K. Karve’s Widow Home Association successfully married off twenty-five widows in Maharashtra.

Contribution of Social Reformers towards the Emancipation of Women

• Western education and the efforts of educated Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Dayananda Saraswati led to attempts at liberating women from ancient social disabilities through socio-religious reform movements.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy opposed polygamy, advocating for women's education and highlighting the Shastra's provisions for second marriages. The Brahmo Samaj aimed to integrate women into new roles through schools and prayer meetings.
• Swami Vivekananda believed in women as a powerful regenerative force, while Dayananda encouraged female education and condemned harmful customs. Reformers like M.G. Rande, Malabari, D.K. Karve focused on educating young widows to become teachers in girls' schools. R.V.R. Naidu opposed the devdasi system, Pantulu advocated for marriage reforms.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidysagar supported female education and widow remarriage. Despite the widow remarriage Act of 1856, societal approval and significant changes in the status of women were lacking.

Mahatma Phule and Savitribai Phule:

• Mahatma Jyotibha Phule advocated for equal rights for men and women, envisioning a society based on liberty, equality, fraternity.
• He started the weekly journal Dinbandhu with the help of Narayan Meghaji Lokhande to spread his message.
• Phule dedicated his efforts to emancipating women from brahmanical patriarchy, promoting individual dignity and equality in socio-religious matters. He was a pioneer in establishing girls' schools in Maharashtra.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar:

• Gopal Ganesh Agarkar was the inaugural editor of Kesar i.
• During his tenure, he addressed various social issues and proposed solutions.
• His reformist views eventually led to his resignation from Kesar i.
• Agarkar founded Sudharak to advocate for social reforms.
• He continued to discuss social problems and offer solutions through this platform.
• Agarkar’s perspectives were independent, progressive, impactful.

Agarkar's Independent Thinking and Women's Education:

• Agarkar was independent and fearless in his thinking. His progressive approach towards women's issues sparked a new awareness.
• He was deeply concerned about the status of women within the family and emphasized the importance of women's education.
• Agarkar believed that both husband and wife are equally important members of the family.

Challenging Ancient Beliefs:

• He opposed ancient religious scriptures that denounced women.
• Agarkar advocated for the emancipation of women and suggested measures to improve their status.
• He believed that outdated and harmful social practices should be eliminated.
• Agarkar was determined to use his newspaper to educate society about these issues.

Editor of Sudharak:

• As an editor of the Sudharak, Agarkar was willing to challenge orthodoxy.
• He faced opposition and anger from traditionalists.
• The Sudharak followed the philosophy of saying what is right and doing what is possible.

Concern for Education:

• Many articles in the Sudharak reflected Agarkar's strong concern for education.
• He dedicated most of his life to teaching and promoting education.
• Agarkar believed in equal education for men and women.
• He suggested that if both genders received the same education, men might have to take on household responsibilities, but they should not consider it beneath their dignity.

Belief in Change and Social Legislation:

• Agarkar believed in the universal law of change and that struggle is necessary for progress.
• He supported social legislation by the government, while Tilak opposed such measures.
• Agarkar advocated for the transformation of Hindu religion and society by adopting the best principles of Western civilization.
• His life mission was to convey the essence of progressive principles to the people.

Child Marriage:

• Agarkar strongly criticized child marriage, arguing for reforms such as women's education, banning child marriages, allowing widow remarriage.
• He believed child marriage was harmful both physically and psychologically, advocating for raising the marriage age.
• Agarkar's stance on child marriage created a conflict with Tilak.
• He supported the social reformer Malabari in passing the Bill of Age of Consent, which Tilak opposed.
• Agarkar believed in legal measures to protect women's rights and opposed treating women as property.
• Due to differences with Tilak on social reforms, Agarkar resigned from the editorship of Kesari and started his own weekly, Sudharak, to promote social reforms.
• He emphasized the importance of public awareness on religious and social issues to address political problems.

Widow Remarriage:

• Agarkar advocated for widow remarriage while opposing child marriage.
• He highlighted the miserable life of widows in Hindu society and argued that widow remarriage would provide purpose and dignity to their lives.
• Agarkar called for both legal measures and social education to promote widow remarriage and address issues like forced abortions.

Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve:

• Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve was a pioneer in promoting women’s education and the right for widows to remarry. He was an active social reformer. After the death of his first wife, he married a widow instead of an unmarried girl. The work of Pandita Ramabai inspired him to dedicate his life to the cause of female education, the work of Pandit Vishnu Shastri inspired him to uplift the status of widows.
• In 1893, Karve founded the “Vidhwa Vivahattejak Mandali”. In 1896, he established the “Hindu Widows Home Association” and started a ‘Mahilashram’ in Hingane. The aim of the Home was to create among high-caste widows an interest in life by training them to become self-sufficient.
• The establishment of a Girls School (Mahila Vidyalaya), a boarding school for non-widow students, was another reform initiated by Karve. The managing committee of his Vidyalaya and Widow’s Home Association decided to open schools and other institutions for the education of women. Later, the ‘Widows Home Association’ was renamed as ‘Hingane Stree Shikshan Sanstha’. During 1917-18, Karve established another school for girls.
• Karve's greatest achievement was the foundation of the women’s university in Maharashtra. He proposed the idea of establishing a special institute for women’s education at the National Social Conference in Mumbai. He was supported by leaders like Annie Besant,Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Bhandarkar.
• The women’s university was founded in 1916, with all educational institutions established by Karve affiliated to it. In 1919, Sir Vithaldas D. Thackersey, an industrialist in Mumbai, provided funds for the university, which was renamed S.N.D.T. (Shrimati Nathibai Damodar Thakersey) Women’s University.
• Karve also took the initiative in establishing girls’ high schools in Maharashtra and Gujarat. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, the nation’s highest honor, in 1958 for his achievements and dedication to the educational cause.

Pandita Ramabai:

• Pandita Ramabai was the daughter of Anant Shastri, a respected Sanskrit scholar. She married Bipin Behari Das, a Brahmo Samajist, but after his death in 1881, she dedicated her life to the upliftment of women.
• Welcomed in Pune by reformers like Ranade, Bhandarkar, Telang, Agarkar, Ramabai established the Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882.
• She traveled to England and America to raise awareness about the plight of women in India, publishing the book 'The High Caste Hindu Woman' to highlight their struggles.
• In 1889, she founded 'Sharada Sadan' in Mumbai, a home for widows aimed at providing educational facilities for widows and destitute women.
• The opening of Sharada Sadan received mixed reactions. Reformers like Ranade and Agarkar supported her efforts, while orthodox figures, including Tilak, opposed her.
• Despite criticism, Ramabai continued her work and eventually converted to Christianity due to the opposition from orthodox sections.
• In 1919, she was honored with the Kaiser-I-Hind Award by the British Monarchy.

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar:

• Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar made significant contributions to women's rights by emphasizing equality in the Indian Constitution.
• The Constitution's preamble promises justice to all citizens, with specific provisions in Parts III and IV promoting the social status of women and children.
• Ambedkar's efforts ensured full pay maternity benefits for working women.
• As a Labour Minister in the Viceroy's Executive Council (1942-1946), he enacted various laws for the betterment of women.
• Ambedkar proposed a bill that raised the age of consent and marriage, upheld monogamy, granted women the right to divorce, recognized stridhan as women's property.
• However, conservative opposition delayed the Hindu Code Bill.
• Frustrated by the conservative members of the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar resigned.
• Later, sections of the Bill were passed as four separate Acts.
• Throughout his life, Ambedkar worked for the upliftment of all sections of society and the overall development of the country, earning the title of liberator of Indian women.

Women and the Indian National Movement

• Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru acknowledged the pivotal role of Indian women in the struggle for independence.
• Women's participation surged, surprising both the British government and their own families.
• The freedom movement featured prominent figures like Gandhi, Lajpat Rai, Motilal Nehru, Azad, Rajagopalachari, Tilak, Gokhale, Nehru, Bose.
• Many notable women also played crucial roles in the movement.
• Historically, women held an important place in Indian society, as seen in the Vedas and Smritis.
• Manusmriti emphasized that where women are honored, gods visit that place.
• During the Vedic era, women were considered equal partners with men.
• Women like Maitri, Gargi, Sati, Anusuya, Sita exemplified this tradition.
• The burden of India's freedom struggle was borne silently and cheerfully by wives, mothers, daughters.
• The program of self-imposed poverty and imprisonment was made possible by the support of workers' families.
• Women, often illiterate, played a passive yet contributory role in various resistance movements.
• India's struggle for independence also became a struggle for women's socio-economic emancipation.
• This was largely due to Gandhi's emphasis on women's upliftment in the Congress's constructive program.
• Foreign-born women like Dr. Annie Besant, Neili Sengupta, Margaret Cousins contributed significantly to India's freedom.
• Political independence brought about the liberation of women, especially in urban areas.
• Rural women followed suit in their participation.
• Enlightened women of the time actively participated in the freedom movement.
• Notable women include Dr. Annie Besant, Madam Cama, Bina Das, Pritilata Wadedar, Kalpana Dutt, Sarojini Naidu, Neili Sengupta, Indira Gandhi.
• Under Gandhi's leadership, the national movement became a mass movement from 1920 onwards.
• Women's participation steadily increased from the Non-Cooperation Movement to the Quit India Movement in 1942.
• Women balanced their responsibilities at home while contributing to the freedom struggle by marching, shouting slogans, picketing shops, facing violence from police.
• Gandhi's appeal encouraged women to fight alongside men, enhancing their status and bringing women's issues to the forefront.
• The national movement was the first platform for women to participate in public life and advocate for rights.
• Gandhi recognized women's potential as political activists and partners in nation-building.
• The national movement liberated women more significantly than previous social reforms.
• Women demonstrated their capabilities as socialists, communists, militant revolutionaries.
• Women fought under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose's leadership for liberation from British rule.
• In 1889, ten women attended the Indian National Congress session.
• In 1890, Swarnakumari Ghosal and Kadambiri Ganguly represented women in the movement.
• Women like Saraladevi, Muthulakshmi Reddy, Amrit Kaur followed Gandhi.
• Sarojini Naidu and others were active in the Rashtriya Stree Sangha.
• Women from Bengal and South India played significant roles in the movement.
• Women's participation led to societal and administrative changes, including the 1937 Hindu Women's Property Act.
• This Act ensured widows' rights in property.
• The Indian National Movement transformed women's conditions, allowing them to demand modern amenities, education, healthcare, protective legislation, civil, political rights.
• Women, once valorized for sacrificing for their families, now sought rights for all citizens.

Conclussion

Indian Society and Women's Struggles:

• Throughout history, Indian society has been burdened by outdated systems, traditions, superstitions. Women, in particular, faced significant hardships. Many social reformers worked tirelessly to uplift Indian society.
• Mahatma Phule played a crucial role in the social reform movement in India during the late 19th century. Most reformers focused on women's emancipation, addressing and solving many important issues.
• Despite the challenges, Indian women made substantial contributions to the development of society. Prominent figures like Cama,Besant, Naidu, along with thousands of other women, actively participated in the Indian National Movement. Many were deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and willingly endured various hardships and repressive measures.
• It is clear that Indian women were not left behind in the struggle for progress. Gandhi's programs and calls significantly contributed to the socioeconomic upliftment of Indian women, marking a significant achievement.