Architecture, Culture, Literature and Arts in Vijayanagara Empire | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Vijayanagara Empire: A Powerful Influence in Southern India:

• In the 14th century, the Vijayanagara Empire emerged as a strong political force in southern India, filling a power vacuum and leaving a lasting impact on various aspects of society.
• The empire is known for its significant contributions to administration, culture, religion, art, and architecture.
• Many of these contributions were aimed at promoting Hindu religion and culture.
• Notable rulers like Harihar, Bukka, Dev Raya II, and Krishnadeva Raya were especially recognized for their cultural initiatives and activities.

Religion 

Rulers of Vijayanagar and Their Religious Beliefs:

• The rulers of Vijayanagar were devout Hindus, with most worshiping either Vishnu or Shiva.
• The early rulers from the Sangama dynasty were mainly Saivaites, with Virupaksha as their family deity.
• Later rulers were influenced by Vaishnava saints, particularly the Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja.
• Krishnadeva Raya was devoted to Vithoba(a form of Vishnu) but also worshiped Shiva.
• Sadasivaraya practiced a liberal form of worship, honoring Siva,Vishnu, and Ganesa.
• The Bhakti movement thrived under their rule, promoting devotion and worship.

Promotion of Hinduism:

• The rulers promoted Hinduism by compiling major religious texts, creating commentaries on these texts, and building a large number of temples richly endowed with resources.
• They also celebrated numerous festivals and made significant grants to the Brahmins, along with granting various other privileges and facilities to them.

Tolerance Towards Other Religions:

• Despite their strong Hindu beliefs, the rulers were tolerant of other sects and faiths. They provided protection and patronage to sects like the Jains.
• Muslims were also employed in the administration and were allowed to build mosques and worship freely.
• Barbosa, a visitor to Krishnadevaraya’s court, noted the king’s policy of religious freedom, allowing people to live according to their own beliefs without interference, whether they were Christian,Jew,Moor, or Hindu.

Architecture 

• The Vijayanagara period saw a remarkable evolution in architecture, marked by a sense of fullness and freedom of expression.
• This architectural style, often referred to as Dravida Style, exhibited unique characteristics that set it apart, leading to its identification as Provida style.
• A significant shift occurred with the transition from the Soft Stone tradition to the emergence of the Hard Stone tradition.
• Architectural endeavors during this period encompassed the construction of temples, monolithic sculptures, palaces, official buildings, cities, and irrigation works such as step wells and tanks.
• There was a harmonious blend of Hindu and Islamic architectural features, as well as a convergence of Nagara and Dravida forms in temple design.

Temples 

The religious zeal of the kings was expressed in the constructions of new temples, renovation of old ones and additions made to a number of temples.

Early Phase:

• The first datable shrine found in Hampi, built during the first dynasty, was dedicated to Jainism.
• The earlier style was influenced by the simpler Deccan style, with some discernible elements from the Chalukyas of Vatapi, as seen in the Vidyashankar temple.
• The fourteenth-century Vijayanagara temples primarily followed the Deccan idiom.

Second Phase:

• By the early fifteenth century, the Tamil tradition gained popularity.
• The core design was derived from Tamil country and Chola shrines, exemplified by the Ramchandra temple and Shiva temple.
• Temples built during this time were primarily made of granite.

Third and Mature Phase:

• The sixteenth century witnessed the maximum development in Vijayanagara temple architecture.
• Unlike the previous centuries, temples in this period varied in size, including large, medium-sized, and smaller temples.
• New elements such as the composite pillar and structures like the hundred-pillar hall and chariot-street were introduced.
• A fusion occurred in Vijayanagara where southern elements became more dominant than Deccan features.
• During the period of Krishna Deva Raya, the mature Vijayanagara style developed, with Chola forms elevated to greater monumentality and elaborate motifs of sculpted animal pillars.

Last Phase:

• The last phase of temple construction occurred during the seventeenth century (Nayaka period).
• Temples from this period displayed even greater monumentality and more elaborate motifs of sculpted animal pillars.
• Vijayanagara architecture was not merely a borrowing from existing traditions; it involved amalgamation and true innovation in the evolution of temple architecture.

Features of Temples

Larger Temple Complex:

• Temples became more elaborate with rich and heavy ornamentation.
• A huge compound wall surrounded the temple complexes.
• Structures were generally modest in size, but a new feature called the Amman Shrine emerged, dedicated to the spouse of the chief deity.

Mandapas:

• The mandapa, an open pavilion with a raised platform for seating deities, became an important feature. The interior of these mandapas was supported by columns, with each pillar having a unique base and a double capital.
• A new structure called the Kalyan Mandap was introduced for the ceremonial union of God and spouse on special occasions.
• The Thousand Pillar Mandap gained popularity, featuring numerous rows of pillars.
• Mandaps were given different names like Rangmandap and Uttarmandap.

Pillars:

• Pillars became highly carved with various designs. The pillar hall at Lepakshi temple is an example of this.
• Some pillars were so elaborately carved that striking them produced musical notes, earning them the name musical pillars, such as those in the mandap of Vittal Temple.

Walls and Pillars:

• Walls and pillars were adorned with intricate sculptural ornamentation depicting scenes from the Ramayana,Mahabharata, and various deities, humans, and animals.
• Some temples featured paintings on their walls and ceilings, such as the Virbhadra temple in Lepakshi.

Monolithic Figures:

• Large monolithic figures like Nandi, located near Lepakshi temple, were also common. The Nandi near Lepakshi is 4 meters high and 8 meters long, making it the largest monolithic Nandi in India.

Gopurams:

• Gopurams, or entrance towers, were added to temples, with the most notable being the southern gopuram of the Ekambarantha temple, built by Krishna Deva Raya.
• These gopurams were typically multi-storied pyramidal structures, often featuring portraits of kings and important patrons, establishing a personal connection between the shrine and these figures.
• Raya Gopuram, a larger and taller type of gopuram, became popular during this time.

Important Temples of this Phase:

Vittal Temple, Vijayanagara, Karnataka

• Known for its temple chariot, Amman Shrine, Kalyan Mandap, three gopurams, and musical pillars.

Hazara Rama Temple, Vijayanagara, Karnataka

• Notable for its intricate carvings and sculptures.

Veerupaksha Temple, Vijayanagara, Karnataka

• One of the oldest and most significant temples in the region.

Veerbhadra Temple, Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh

• Built in the mid-16th century during the reign of King Achuta Deva Raya.

Comprises three sections:

• Mukha Mandapa: Used for dance and cultural activities.
• Artha Mandapa: For worship, leading to the Garbha Griha, which houses the deity.
• Kalyana Mandapa: Wedding Hall with 38 intricately carved monolithic pillars.

Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh:

• Another significant temple of this period, known for its architectural grandeur and religious importance.

Monoliths

Monolithic Sculptures and Stone Chariot:

• Ganesha (Hampi): A massive stone sculpture of Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, carved out of a single rock in Hampi.
• Hanuman: A large, intricately carved monolithic statue of Hanuman, the monkey god, showcasing remarkable craftsmanship.
• Narasimha (Hampi): A colossal monolithic figure of Narasimha, an avatar of Vishnu, depicted in a powerful pose, also found in Hampi.
• Stone Chariot: A famous stone chariot, intricately carved and depicting detailed sculptures, representing a significant architectural achievement.

Tanks and Wells

• Krishna Deva Raya built a large tank to supply water and a beautifully designed stepwell in Hampi.
• The Vijayanagara architecture played a crucial role in the evolution of both religious and secular architecture in India.

Cities

• The city of Vijayanagara was known for its impressive architecture, including grand palaces, public offices, and advanced irrigation systems.

Royal Palaces:

• The royal palaces were the most magnificent buildings in the city, as noted by the Portuguese traveler Paes.
• Inside the royal palace, several important structures included:
• Royal Audience Hall: A raised platform supported by wooden pillars.
• Queens Bath: A water pavilion that served as a grand bathing area in Hampi.
• Guard’s Quarter: Living quarters for the palace guards.
• Mahanavami Dibba: A massive platform with intricate carvings of humans and animals, located near a large tank.
• Lotus Mahal: A two-story building featuring a blend of Islamic and Indian architectural styles, such as engrailed arches and pyramidal towers.
• Elephant Stable: A structure with both Islamic (domes and arches) and Indian (pyramidal) architectural elements.

Religious Structures:

• The mosques in Hampi displayed Indian influences with pillars similar to those in Pillar Mandapas.
• The city gates featured Islamic architectural elements like domes and arches.

Marketplaces and Streets:

• The Hampi bazaar was an excellent example of street architecture, with various features like markets, palaces, and brothels.

Traveler Accounts:

• Paes provided valuable insights into the city’s walls, gates, streets, markets, and royal palaces, comparing its size to Rome and praising it as the best-equipped city in the world.
• Abdul Razzak admired Vijayanagara, claiming it was unlike any place seen or heard of before, and noted the city’s protection by seven rings of ramparts.
• Russian traveler Nicolo Conti also mentioned the city’s fortifications.

Description of Vijayanagara city in the light of the account of foreign travellers

Nicolo Conti

• An Italian traveler visited Vijayanagara in 1420, shortly after Devaraya I came to power.
• This traveler is the first known foreign visitor to Vijayanagara.
• He noted the strong fortifications surrounding the city.
• The traveler observed that thousands of men were employed in the army.

Abdur Razzaq 

Persian Traveler's Impressions of Vijayanagara (1443):

• A Persian traveler from the 15th century, around 1443, was impressed by the urban planning of Vijayanagara.
• He noted the massive fortifications surrounding the city.
• The city was protected by seven rings of ramparts.
• The walls had a slighttaperand were built without mortar as a cementing material.
• The fortifications included forest land and agricultural land necessary for subsistence.
• The traveler also observed the streets and houses within the urban complex.
• He described the processions during the Mahanavami festival as well.

Domingo Pace 

Portuguese Traveler's Description of Vijayanagara (16th Century):

• Vijayanagara is a vast city, comparable in size to Rome.
• The city is visually stunning and well-organized.
• The king's palace is a notable feature within the city.
• There are numerous groves of trees, contributing to the city's beauty.
• The city has many water conduits, ensuring a good supply of water.
• Lakes are present in certain areas of the city, adding to its charm.
• The audience hall and Mahanavami Dibba are prominent structures, collectively referred to as the "House of Victory."
• The Mahanavami festival features grand processions with animals, warriors, and courtly women, along with wrestling matches, fireworks, and other entertainments.
• The streets are broad and beautiful, lined with markets.
• Many merchants reside along these streets, offering a wide variety of goods.
• Everything one might wish to buy is available in the markets, including provisions like rice,wheat,corn, and pulses, which are plentiful and inexpensive.
• The city is considered the best-provided city in the world, with precious items like diamonds and pearls readily available in the markets.

Fernao Nuniz 

Portuguese Traveler in 16th Century:

• A Portuguese traveler from the early 16th century provides insights into the markets of Vijayanagara.
• His observations focus primarily on the availability of provisions and food items.
• The traveler notes that the markets are overflowing with a variety of fruits, including grapes,oranges, and mangoes.
• He mentions that the markets are stocked with all kinds of necessities, listing items such as mutton,pork,horses, and sparrows.
• The food materials are described as being very cheap.
• During the Mahanavami festivals, the traveler observes that women wear exquisite jewels.

Barbosa 

Portuguese Traveler's Account of Vijayanagara:

• A Portuguese traveler visited the Vijayanagara kingdom during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya in the early 16th century.
• He described the cities in Vijayanagara as rich and well-provided for, indicating a high standard of living.
• The kingdom featured large townships and a thriving trade network, showcasing its economic prosperity.

Cesare Federici 

Italian traveler visited in 1567.

• The city was only partially destroyed after the battle of Talikota.
• The Arvindu dynasty attempted to re-establish the Vijayanagara capital, but this effort was unsuccessful.

Sculpture 

Vijayanagara Sculpture:

• Sculptures were prominently displayed in temples and on the grand pillars of these religious structures.
• Monolithic sculptures, carved from a single block of stone, were also created during this period.
• The art of casting bronze, which had been practiced during the Chola period, continued into the Vijayanagara era.
• The themes and methods of treatment in bronze casting remained similar to those of the Chola period.
• The Vijayanagara period is noteworthy for the production of life-size portraits of kings and queens.
• One notable example is the portrait sculpture of Krishnadeva Raya and his queens, which can be seen at Tirumala.
• It is important to note that some aspects of sculpture are also covered under the topic of architecture.

Literature 

Golden Age of Literature in South India:

• The Vijayanagar rulers were strong supporters of literature, leading to the creation of numerous religious and secular texts in languages like Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil.
• Scholars from Jain, Virashaiva, and Vaishnava traditions contributed significantly during this period.
• The height of literary achievement occurred during the reign of Krishna Raya, who is celebrated as ‘Andhra Bhoja’.
• During this time, hundreds of works were produced covering various aspects of Indian culture, including religion, philosophy, literature, history, biographies, stories, music, grammar, poetics, and medicine.

Bhasyas:

• Numerous commentaries, known as Bhasyas, were written on religious texts. For instance, Sayanacharya, supported by Bukka Raya I, wrote commentaries on the Vedas, while Himadri focused on the Dharmashastra.
• Other significant commentaries included those on the Satpatha Brahmana and Aitareya Aranyaka.
• Vyasarya, a revered figure in the Vijayanagara Empire and supported by Krishnadeva, authored a comprehensive work on Dvaita Philosophy.
• Vedanta Desika composed an epic about Krishna called Yadavabhyudaya and a poem titled Hansa Sandesa, which is similar to Kalidasa’s Meghaduta.

Krishna Deva Raya:

• Krishna Deva Raya himself was a talented scholar and wrote several notable works, including Madalasa Charita, Satyavadu Parinaya, Rasamanjari, and Jambavati Kalyana.
• Mohanangi, the wife of Ramraya (the prime minister to Sadashiva Raya), authored the famous life-epic Marichiparinayam.
• The Ashtadiggajas, the eight court-poets of Krishnadeva Raya, also made significant contributions, with works like Manu Charitra by Allasani Peddana and Panduranga Mahatyam.
• The period of the Ashtadiggajas is known as the Prabandha Period due to the high quality of Prabandha literature produced during this time.
• The Maduravijayam by Gangadevi, a Sanskrit poet, is a notable historical work from this era.

Language 

Large scale literary works resulted in growth on language development.

• Telugu was a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya.
• Kannada,Telugu and Sanskrit, and also regional languages such as Tamil received great thrust.
• The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu.

Kannada:

• It was mainly promoted by Jaina saints but others also contributed.
• Bhim Kavi translated Bhasyapurana.
• Over 7000 inscriptions(Shilashasana) including 300 copper plate inscriptions(Tamarashasana) have been recovered, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu,Tamil and Sanskrit.
• Narahari composed a popular version of Ramayana called Torve Ramayan.
• Kumaravyas composed Mahabharta in Kannada.
• Vithalnath translated Bhagwat Purana into Kannada.
• Vaishnav SaintsPurandhardas,Kanakdas and Sripathraja contributed to Kannada literature through Bhakti songs and Kirthans.
• Bhimakavi wrote Basava Purana
• Virupaksha Pandit wrote Chennabasva Purana

Telugu:

• It was a court language and gained even more cultural prominence during the reign of the later Vijayanagar kings.
• Up to 1500 AD most of the books were written in the form of translations.
• Famous scholars were Srinatha,Pothana,Jakkama and Duggana, who translated Sanskrit and Prakrit works into Telugu.
• During Bukka I‘s time,Gangadevi wrote Madura Vijayam.

Devaraya II:

• He wrote two Sanskrit works, Mahantaka Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana.
• He gave the title of Kanakkabhisekha to Srinatha who wrote Sringara Naishada,Sivaratrimahatyam,Kasikandha,Bhim-kanda,Harivilasam and Ponditaradhya Charita.
• Bommara Pothana translated the Bhagwat Purana into Telugu and also wrote Virbhadra Vijayam.
• Telugu reached its peak during period of ashtadiggajas.

Krishnadevaraya:

• Krishnadeva Raya wrote ‘Amuktamalyada‘, a book on polity in Telugu and a Sanskrit drama ‘Jambavati Kalyanam‘.
• Nachana Somanatha wrote ‘UttaraHarivamsu‘,
• Poets like Alsani Peddana and Nandi Timmana flourished.
• Allasani Peddana wrote Manucharitam and Harikathasarammsamu.
• Tenali Ramakrishna wrote Pandura-ngamahatyam.

Achyuta Raya:

• He patronised Rajanatha and the poetess Tirumalambadevi who wrote Vardambika Parinayam.

Ramaraya:

• He patronized Ramayamatya, an authority on music.
• Tirumala commented on Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda.
• Dikshitar wrote a commentary on the Vedas and explained Advaita Philosophy.
• Vemana wrote Vemanasatakas, moralist literature in Telugu.
• Elugandi Peddana translated Leelavati, a maths book into Telugu.

Tamil:

• Krishnadevaraya also patronised Tamil poet.
• Tirumalainatha and his son Paranjotiyar were well-known scholars of the period.
• Sewaichch-buduyar translated Bhagavata Puranam into Tamil.

Sanskrit:

• Many Sanskrit scholars were patronized e.g. Sayanacharya,Vyasaraya. Most of his works were devoted to Dvaita philosophy.
• Bhatta Akalankedva, a Jain Pandit wrote a grammar of Kannada in Sanskrit along with a commentary.
• Works of Vedanta Desika is also in Sanskrit.

Music and Dance 

The Vijayanagar Empire and Music:

• Encouragement of Traditional Music: The rulers of Vijayanagar promoted court and temple singing as a specialized art form and preserved the traditional music of South India, minimizing Iranian influence.
• Origin of Carnatic Music: The Vijayanagar period is recognized as the birthplace of Carnatic music, particularly during the time of Purandhar Das, who is also credited with the origin of Rudraveens.
• Diverse Musical Instruments: Artists used a wide variety of musical instruments, including Veena, Venu, and Mridanga.
• Sculptural Representation: Since visual representation of vocal music in sculpture was challenging, contemporary music was depicted through musical instruments in sculptures and paintings.

Important Musical Works:

• Sangita Suryodaya by Lakshmi Narain
• Sangitasara by Vidayaranya
• Commentary on Sangeet Ratnakar by Kalinath
• Swarmer Kalanidhi by Ramamatya

Dance in the Vijayanagar Empire:

• Bharatanatyam: This classical dance form was promoted during the Vijayanagar period.
• Yakshagana: This dance drama, closely associated with temple walls, was a popular form of drama during this time.

Role of Music and Dance in Culture:

• Both folk and classical songs were equally popular among the masses and classes, reflecting in the paintings of the period.

Painting 

Paintings provide insights into various aspects of life such as customs, entertainment, religious beliefs, and social practices.

The Vijayanagar paintings reflect a revival of Hindu religion and art in South India, primarily associated with architecture through mural painting.

Mural paintings were used to adorn the inner ceilings and walls of palaces, but only a few examples survive today. Much of what we know comes from descriptions by foreign visitors who observed these paintings.

Mural paintings can be found in temples such as:

• Veerabhadra Lepakshi Temple
• Virupaksha Temple
• Kalyana Sundareswara Temple

Themes and Features of Paintings:

• Paintings depict scenes from epics like the Ramayana and Indian Puranas.
• Scenes related to Draupadi's wedding and Kiratarjunya (Arjuna's penance) are also portrayed.
• Animals and Wildlife: Paintings feature various animals and wildlife.
• Celestial Ladies: Frescoes depict celestial ladies and girls performing dances, including dangerous dances with double-edged swords.
• Foreign Visitors: Some paintings portray foreign visitors to the Vijayanagar Empire.
• Artistic Style: Human faces are usually shown in profile, and figures are depicted with a slight slant.

Paintings of Veerbhadra Lepakshi:

• Located in the high ceilings of the Veerabhadra temple's gateways, mandapas, and corridors.
• Ceiling panels: The ceiling is divided into strips with square or rectangular panels, each depicting a scene related to the central theme.
• Virbhadra's depiction: An extraordinary large figure of Virbhadra with his devotees, Virupanna and Viranna, is painted.
• Scenes from epics: Panels depict scenes from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Puranas, including gods like Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.
• Murals of kings and queens: Some murals likely depict contemporary kings and queens.
• Artistic style: Paintings feature elegant line-work against an orange-red background, highlighting textile patterns, hairstyles, and jewelry.
• Costumes: Costumes are richly detailed with decorative patterns.
• Shiva-Parvati Wedding: The wedding of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati is depicted spectacularly, with attention to the costumes and jewelry of the guests.

Paintings of Virupaksha Temple in Hampi:

• Paintings depict dynastic history, episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and exploits of Lord Shiva.

Debate on contribution of Vijayanagara Empire in art and architecture 

Vijayanagar Empire's Cultural Contribution: Scholarly Perspectives

• Scholars have differing views on the cultural impact of the Vijayanagar Empire.
• Some historians argue that the Vijayanagar rulers played a crucial role in preserving South India's distinct Hindu culture, shielding it from Islamic influences.
• These rulers are credited with enriching cultural life in South India through their strong support for various cultural activities.
• Conversely, other scholars believe that the Vijayanagar period was marked by cultural stagnation.
• They argue that the rulers adhered to a conservative cultural approach, discouraging new ideas and innovations.
• The literature from this period, particularly religious texts, is seen as repetitive and lacking in fresh ideas.
• In the arts, while some embellishments were added in architecture, sculpture, and painting showed signs of decline.