Sangam Age: Economy, Land grants | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Sangam Age: Economy

The Sangam Age, also known as the Early Historic period in South India, encompasses the regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which are located in the southernmost part of India and bordered by seas on three sides. 

This period is roughly contemporary with the time of the Mauryas, the Sungas, the Indo-Greeks, the Kushanas, and the Satavahanas, who ruled in different parts of India. Although the language spoken in the Sangam region was Tamil, the historical and cultural developments of this period were interconnected with other parts of India and the Indian Ocean region, indicating a broader influence.

• Compared to earlier times, the economy during the Sangam Age exhibited greater diversity and prosperity. It was during this period that coins and written scripts were introduced for the first time in history. The material cultural wealth, as revealed by literature and archaeology, suggests a level of economic prosperity, at least to some extent, when compared to the preceding cultural period.
• The Iron Age in South India, which lasted from around 1300 BCE to 300 BCE, was a formative cultural period that laid the groundwork for the Early Historic period. The Sangam Age, named after the Sangam association that compiled the texts of this era, is generally placed between 300 BCE and 300 CE. However, it is possible that these texts were compiled into anthologies later than their original composition.
• During the Sangam Age, the polity was dominated by the Vendars, particularly the Cholas, the Pandiyas, and the Cheras, along with numerous smaller political entities or chiefs. The references to these larger political entities in the inscriptions of Asoka, along with the vast corpus of Sangam literature, mark the beginning of the Early Historic period in South India.
• The Sangam corpus serves as the primary source of information for this cultural period. The literature from this era provides insights into the ways of life and economic activities of people from various walks of life. Evidence from Sangam literature is supported by Tamil inscriptions, Asokan inscriptions, Greco-Roman sources, and archaeological findings.
• Several scholars have contributed to the understanding of the Sangam Age. Early studies focused on literary investigations, while later research has shifted towards the study of Indo-Roman trade. Archaeological excavations of megalithic burials and habitation sites have also played a crucial role in enhancing our understanding of the cultural developments during this period.

Sources for Studying the Sangam Age Economy:
Various sources are available for studying the economy of the Sangam Age, including Sangam Tamil texts, Greco-Roman and Sanskrit sources, Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, Asokan inscriptions, and archaeological sites and materials.

Sangam Tamil Texts:
The Sangam corpus comprises eighteen major works, including Ettutogai(eight anthologies) and Pattupattu(ten long poems).

Ettutogai Poems:

• Ainkurunuru
• Ahananuru
• Purananuru
• Kalittogai
• Kuruntogai
• Nattrinai
• Paripatal
• Patitruppattu

Pattupattu Texts:

• Tirumurukarruppatai
• Kurincippattu
• Malaipatukatam
• Maturaikkanci
• Mullaippattu
• Netunalvatai
• Pattinappalai
• Perumpanarruppatai
• Porunararruppatai
• Cirupanarruppatai

The eighteen works from the later period and the five epics provide insights into the early medieval period (Post-Sangam) and offer data on landscapes, culture, and eco-cultural contexts.

Greco-Roman Texts:

• Foreign accounts, due to the Tamil region’s external connectivity during the Early Historic period, discuss maritime activities in Tamizhagam. Strabo’s account, the Periplus Marei Erythreae(Casson 1989), Ptolemy’s account, and Sanskrit texts such as the Ramayana are crucial sources for understanding development and economy during this period.

Inscriptions

Asokan Inscriptions:

• Particularly Rock Edict II, mention polities and Asoka’s welfare activities, including planting herbs and establishing medical facilities for humans and animals.

Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions:

• Found along trade routes, these inscriptions on rock shelters and pottery reveal the activities and backgrounds of merchants, as well as the development of script and literacy.

Archaeological Sources

Megalithic Burials:

• Abundant megalithic burials and the rich variety of material culture, including iron, ceramics, copper, gold, carnelian, quartz artifacts, beads, and rare Roman coins.

Roman Coins and Local Coins:

• Roman-origin coins (Turner 1989), punch-marked coins (Vanaja 1983), and local rulers’ issues (Chola, Pandya, Chera, Malayaman) shed light on early transaction nature and monetization.

Excavated Archaeological Sites:

• Excavated sites, including port sites like Arikamedu,Azhagankulam,Kaveripumpattinam,Korkai,Uraiyur,Kanchipuram,Keezhati in Tamil Nadu, and Pattanam in Kerala, as well as burial sites like Sanur,Kodumanal, and Adichanallur, provide information on Iron Age-Early Historic material culture.
• Evidence from these sites also indicates extensive material cultural production, trade, and craft production.

Sangam Age: Economic Activities

The economic activities during the Sangam Age showed a significant increase compared to the Iron Age, with visible prosperity reflected in both archaeological findings and contemporary literature, both indigenous and foreign.
The economic activities of this period can be categorized into:

• Primary production: This included hunting, gathering, fishing, agriculture, and pastoralism.
• Craft production: The creation of various goods and artifacts.
• Exchange and commercial activities: Trade and other forms of economic exchange.

The political landscape of the Sangam Age was predominantly ruled by the Vendars of the Cholas,Pandiyas, and Cheras, along with numerous smaller political entities. There is some debate among historians regarding the nature of these early political formations. While they exhibited characteristics of chiefdoms, they cannot be classified as purely primitive or tribal entities lacking territorial control. At the same time, they did not represent an early form of a state either. These polities exerted control over their territories through frequent military campaigns and battles, as well as through rituals that sought to legitimize their authority.

Landscapes and Economic Activities:

• The economic activities in different landscapes during the Sangam Age can be understood through early Tamil texts. According to the classification in Sangam literature, the territories of the Tamil region consisted of the Kurinji, Marutam, Mullai, Neytal, and Palai tracts.

Kurinji (Mountainous) zone:

• The Kurinji region was inhabited by hill people involved in hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, and gathering forest produce.
• They gathered roots, fruits, sweet potatoes, and forest produce.
• Hunting of small game and small-scale farming of millets like ragi and tinai were common.
• Agriculture was practiced during the monsoon, with wild varieties of paddy and various rice crops mentioned in literature.
• Forest produce like pepper,aram (Sandal), and Akil were collected and possibly exchanged for produce from other regions.

Mullai and Economic Activities:

• The Mullai region, characterized by scrub forests and pastures, was primarily involved in animal husbandry.
• Cowherds and shepherds, known as Ayar and Aychiyar, produced dairy products like curd and butter.
• Rain-fed farming was also practiced, with tinai and varahu as the main crops.
• A system of barter existed between people of different zones.

Marutam and Economic Activities:

• Marutam refers to the wet-land in the riverine delta area.
• The people, called Uzhavars and Uzhathiyars, engaged in agriculture, with rice being the main crop, along with various rice varieties.
• The fertile lands, nurtured by perennial waterbodies and streams, were known as vayal,ceru,kazhani, and pazhanam Malaipatukatam.

Neytal and Economic Activities:

• Fishing was the primary occupation in the Neytal region, along with salt manufacturing and pearl fishery.
• Trade in various goods occurred in coastal areas, with people known as Valayar and Paratavar.
• The region had many ports and Pattanams that became commercial and urban centers.

Palai and Economic Activities:

• The Palai region, being arid and dry, had limited economic activities, primarily hunting and gathering.
• The people, known as Maravar, resorted to robbery of traders passing through the region from other zones.

Primary Production

While the text-based classification categories mentioned earlier are relevant and represent only a part of reality, they do not encompass all the components of a particular zone. These categories were idealized, generalized forms meant for literary compositions. In reality, there must have been overlaps in territories, communal and social lives of people, and these landscape categories do not provide a complete reflection of reality. Life was likely more complex.

Agriculture:

• Agriculture was practiced on different scales across regions. Literature mentions various types of rice cultivation, including Vennel(white rice), ivananel, torai,sennel(red rice), and putunel(new rice). Agriculture was carried out on segmented lands known as vayal, ceru, kalani, and pazhanam. 
• The Chola king Karikalan is said to have transformed forests into agricultural land, built tanks, and constructed an embankment along the Kaveri River(Pattinapalai 283-284). Farmers, known as Uzhavars, ploughed the fields, while the chieftains of agricultural communities were called Velir. 
• Traditional methods of sowing seeds in fertilized fields using animal manure and vegetable waste were followed (Perumpanarrupatai 153-54, Cirupanarrupatai 136-137). Seed selection preceded sowing. In dry areas, millets were cultivated, and shifting cultivation was practiced in hilly regions. A wide variety of crops were cultivated, exchanged, and traded across the region.

Pastoralism:

• Pastoralism was prevalent in forested areas, particularly in central Tamil Nadu. Conflicts over cattle were common and sometimes led to skirmishes among people. Warriors who died in such conflicts were honored by erecting hero stones. These hero stones are frequently mentioned in literature, especially in the context of pastoral regions like the Mullai tracts. 
• Goods such as curd,butter, and other produce were exchanged. Sheep-goat pastoralism was also common, as evidenced by references in texts and archaeological findings of animal bones. Goat meat was particularly enjoyed, as reflected in poems.

Hunting-Gathering-Fishing:

• Hunting and gathering also contributed to the economy, with evidence of trade or barter in animal meat and forest produce. Fishing was a primary occupation in coastal areas, with fish being exchanged for paddy. People collected gems, precious stones, and animal products like elephant tusks, which were also traded. Gathered forest produce was exchanged for various goods, and there is evidence of trading ivory for toddy in literature.

Salt Making:

• Salt, an important commodity used in food and preservation, was produced by coastal communities. Salt traders, known as Umanars, are frequently mentioned in Tamil literature.

Craft Specialization

• Sangam texts indicate that different types of crafts were present in the ancient Tamil country.
• Craft specialization is a defining feature of the Sangam Age, likely originating in the Iron Age. In Sangam literature, blacksmiths were referred to as kollans, and archaeological evidence suggests the presence of specialized workshops for various crafts.

Iron Smelting:

• Iron smelting, pottery making, and stone-bead making were established as full-time specialized crafts during the Iron Age, with craftsmen spread across the landscape due to high demand.
• In the Early Historic period, industries such as gemstone cutting, shell, and glass bead making emerged but were limited to specific centers.

Crafts and Industries:

• Sangam literature mentions craftsmen with specific names and exclusive colonies of shell bangle makers, indicating a level of organization and specialization among craftsmen, particularly in urban areas.
• Weaving was a significant industry, supported by evidence of spindle whorls, woven cloth, and dyeing vats. Urban areas, industrial centers, and coastal port towns were hubs for various industries, while iron and ceramic industries were widespread.

Iron Industry:

• The iron industry was crucial to the economy, supporting various activities such as warfare, agriculture, and fishing. Blacksmiths produced iron objects extensively, and these items were traded.
• While iron smelting sites were limited, iron working sites were more prevalent. Evidence of large-scale production is seen in burials containing iron objects, including weapons like swords, axes, daggers, and spears.

Iron Furnace Sites

• Iron production capability was advanced, with evidence of furnaces at sites like Guttur and Kodumanal.
• Furnaces capable of producing cast iron were identified, and high-quality iron objects with specific carbon content were produced, indicating skilled metallurgy.

Gold Working:

• Gold working became prominent, possibly with the influx of Roman gold. Evidence of goldsmiths and traders is found in literature, and gold objects have been discovered in excavations.
• Megalithic burials have also yielded gold jewelry, indicating the significance of gold working in the society.

Glass Bead Industry:

• The glass bead industry emerged during this period, with evidence from sites like Arikamedu and Kudikkadu.
• Glass beads were traded widely, and the production of colorful glass objects became significant due to demand and limited material availability.

Stone Bead and Ornament Working:

• Numerous sites have yielded evidence of stone bead and ornament manufacture, with sites like Kodumanal,Arikamedu,Kudikkadu,Alagankulam, and Pattanam producing stone beads and ornaments.
• Materials like quartz, amethyst, carnelian, and garnet were used, and some items were exported for overseas markets.

Shell Bangle Working:

• Shell bangle working thrived in coastal areas, with evidence from sites like Arikamedu,Kudikkadu,Alagankulam, and Korkai.
• Bangels made from shells of Turbinella pyrum were popular, and the industry is mentioned in Sangam literature.

Textile Industry:

• The textile industry was well-developed, with urban dwellers wearing cotton and silk clothes, often decorated with floral designs.
• Dyeing vats and references to various types of clothes in literature suggest a vibrant textile industry, with fabrics traded from regions like East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Orissa.

Sangam Age: Land Grants

During the Sangam Age, there was a significant expansion of land under cultivation and settlements, largely facilitated through land grants made to brahmanas. These grants were often exempt from various taxes and dues, encouraging the cultivation of new lands.

Types of Lands Granted:

• Many of the lands granted were virgin forests that were opened up for cultivation. However, grants were also made for regions that were already under cultivation.

Economic and Political Benefits:

• The ruling families benefited economically from these grants because the cultivation of these lands would lead to an increase in the resource base.
• Land grants also ensured that the rulers received support from the brahmins, who were crucial for maintaining social and religious order. The practice was sanctioned by religious texts, which emphasized the need for brahmins to receive their subsistence through such means.

Grants to Non-Brahmin Establishments:

• Land grants were not limited to brahmanas alone. Non-brahmin religious establishments, such as Buddhist and Jain temples, also received land grants.

Land Gifts to Officials:

• During the Gupta and Post-Gupta periods, land gifts to officials became prominent. This practice contributed to the emergence of a new class of landowners.
• Defeated kings often continued to rule over their lands after accepting the suzerainty of new powers. This meant that these kings became vassals, sending tribute to the new lords by sharing revenue from the land.

Development of Water Resources:

• The development of water resources was a crucial factor in the spread of rural areas. There was a notable increase in the construction of canals, lakes, wells, and irrigation facilities such as tanks.
• Various terms were used to refer to these water resources, including Keres(tanks),Nadi(river),Araghatta(wells),Srota(water channel), and Vapis(step wells).

Emergence of Feudal System:

• Land grants played a pivotal role in the emergence of a feudal system in India. This system was characterized by the grant of land in exchange for service and the establishment of a hierarchy of lords and vassals.