Guptas: Gupta Empire | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Gupta Empire

• The Gupta Empire, established around A.D. 319, marked a significant period in Indian history after centuries of political fragmentation. While not as vast as the earlier Maurya Empire, the Gupta Empire successfully united northern India for over a century. The Gupta dynasty, ruling from approximately 320 CE to 550 CE, played a crucial role in consolidating political power in northern India by subduing local and provincial powers that had gained independence following the decline of the Kushan Empire.
• At its height, the Gupta Empire encompassed most of northern India, parts of eastern Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, eastern India, and present-day Bangladesh. The capital of the Gupta Empire was Pataliputra, located in modern-day Patna.
• The Gupta period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of India due to significant advancements in various fields such as science, technology, engineering, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, which laid the foundation for what is now known as Hindu culture. This era produced remarkable achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting, and scholars like Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana made notable contributions to different academic disciplines. The Gupta period witnessed advancements in science and political administration and established strong trade links, making the region a vital cultural center that influenced neighboring kingdoms and regions, including Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. It is also believed that the earliest Indian epics were written during this period.

Early Kings and Origin of the Guptas:

• The Gupta dynasty's history begins with Sri-Gupta, who is thought to have founded the dynasty around 240 CE. His successor, Ghatotkacha, held the title of Maharaja, commonly used by feudatory chiefs. The Poona copper plate inscription of Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja of the Gupta dynasty.
• Records from the Gupta Empire and accounts by the Chinese traveler I-Tsing provide the names of the first three rulers of the Gupta Dynasty: Maharaja Sri Gupta, Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha, and Ghatotkacha's son, Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta, who is considered the first Gupta emperor.

Caste:

• Historians often classify the Gupta dynasty as a Vaishya dynasty. Some believe the Vaishya Guptas emerged as a response to oppressive rulers. The caste of the Guptas is sometimes considered Vaishya based on ancient Indian legal texts that associate the name Gupta with the Vaishya caste. The rise of the Gupta Empire is seen as a significant challenge to the traditional caste system in ancient India.
• In the Panchobh Copper Plate, some kings related to the imperial Gupta Dynasty, bearing the title Guptas, identified themselves as Vaishyas. The Riddhapura copper plate inscription states that Sri Gupta belonged to the Dharan Gotra.

Original Homeland:

• Theory 1: According to this theory, the Guptas were initially landowners who gained political control over Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Archaeological evidence suggests that early Gupta coins and inscriptions are predominantly found in Uttar Pradesh, indicating that this region was likely more significant for the Guptas than Bihar. It is believed that their center of power was at Prayag (modern Allahabad), from where they expanded their influence. The Guptas may have been feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh and succeeded them with little time lag.
  The favorable conditions, including the fertile land of Madhyadesha (covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh), access to iron ores in central India and south Bihar, and proximity to regions involved in silk trade with the Byzantine Empire, facilitated the Guptas in establishing their rule over Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag, Saket (modern Ayodhya), and Magadha. Over time, this kingdom expanded into an all-India empire.
• Theory 2: Another widely accepted theory, supported by both archaeological and written evidence, suggests that the Guptas originated from Varendri (now part of Rangpur, Bangladesh). The mention of the "Varendra Mrigashihavan Stupa" in Nepal suggests that the Guptas had roots in Bengal. Historians propose that Varendri might have been under Gupta influence when they ascended the throne. Maharaja Sri-Gupta likely ruled a portion of Northern or Southern Bengal, and later, Chandragupta I established control over Magadha through marriage alliances with the Licchavis. Accounts by I-Tsing and other Gupta records also indicate that Sri-Gupta was the first Gupta ruler from Varendri in Bengal.

Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-320 to 335)

• Chandragupta I, often confused with Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, is considered the founder of the Gupta dynasty. He was the son of Ghatotkacha and the grandson of Sri Gupta. To gain prestige, he married Kumaradevi, a princess from the Lichchhavi clan of Vaishali, although Vaishali was not part of his kingdom.
• As the ruler of the Gupta Empire, Chandragupta I is known for forging alliances with powerful families in the Ganges region. His rule was primarily confined to Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, including Saketa and Prayaga.
• He adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja, and his accession around A.D. 319-20 marks the beginning of the Gupta era.

Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380)

• Samudragupta, the son of Chandragupta I, succeeded his father after defeating a rival prince named Kacha. He is often regarded as the greatest king of the Gupta dynasty, known for his benevolence, military prowess, and patronage of the arts.
• His exploits are detailed in a lengthy eulogy composed by his court poet Harisena and inscribed on an Asokan pillar at Allahabad. This account lists the kings, states, and tribes he conquered or subdued.
• The Asokan pillar at Allahabad is notable for containing inscriptions from both Samudragupta and earlier Mauryan rulers. The Ashokan inscription is in Brahmi and dates to 232 BCE, while Samudragupta's eulogy is in refined Sanskrit and Gupta script.
• The Eran Stone Inscription of Samudragupta, found near the Varaha temple by Alexander Cunningham, compares Samudragupta to Kubera (Dhanada) and Yama (Antaka) and mentions the establishment of a Janardana temple at Airikina.
• Samudragupta is also known through his coins, which came in eight different types, all made of pure gold. He is considered the father of the Gupta monetary system, introducing various coin types such as the Standard Type, Archer Type, Battle Axe Type, Ashvamedha Type, Tiger Slayer Type, King and Queen Type, and Lyre Player Type. These coins are known for their technical and sculptural quality, with some types depicting Samudragupta in martial armor.
• His Ashvamedha type coins commemorate the Ashvamedha sacrifices he performed, symbolizing his victories and supremacy.

Conquest of Samudragupta

• Kosala
• Mahakantara
• Kaurata
• Pishtapura
• Kottura
• Erandapalli
• Kanchi
• Avamukta
• Vengi
• Palakka
• Devrashtra
• Kushthalpura

Aryavarta Kings

• Samudragupta exterminated the rulers of eight kingdoms in Aryavarta, with notable figures like Rudradwa, Ganapatinaga, and Nagasena. He annexed Eran and several kingdoms in Aryavarta into the Gupta Empire during his conquests.

Forest States and Tribal Republics
Samudragupta reduced the rulers of forest states (atavirarajyas) to servitude and forced the chiefs of five Border States (pratyantas) and nine tribal republics to pay taxes, obey his orders, and perform obeisance. The five Border States were:

• Samtata (South-east Bengal)
• Kamarupa (Assam)
• Nepala (Nepal)
• Davaka (Assam)
• Kartipura (Kashmir)

The nine tribal republics included:

• Malavas
• Yaudheyas
• Madrakas
• Abhiras
• Prarjunas
• Arjunayanas
• Sarakinakas
• Kavas
• Kharaparikas

Tribute-Paying States

• This category includes the Daivaputra Shahi Shahanushahi (Kushanas), the Shaka, Murundas, the dwellers of Sinhala (Ceylon), and other islands who paid tribute to Samudragupta.

Culture and Religion

• Despite his focus on political and military matters, Samudragupta had a passion for music and poetry. Some of his gold coins depict him playing the lyre (veena).
• Samudragupta was a man of remarkable talents and diverse skills—a warrior, statesman, general, poet, musician, and philanthropist. Coins and inscriptions from the Gupta period attest to his versatile abilities and tireless energy.
• The Allahabad Prasasti portrays Samudragupta as a person of multifaceted genius, surpassing even the legendary musicians Tumburu and Narada with his intellect and musical skills. His title of Kaviraj (King of Poets) is supported by various poetic works, though none have survived.
• Notable scholars in his court included Harishena, Vasubandhu, and Asanga, and he was a poet and musician himself.
• Samudragupta upheld Brahmanical religion and earned the title of 'Dharma-prachir bandhu' in the Allahabad inscription for his religious contributions. However, he was also tolerant of other religions. His support for the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and the request from Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya (the Mahabodhi Sangharama, as noted by the Chinese traveler Xuanzang) demonstrate his respect for other faiths. His coins featuring Ashvamedha, as well as those depicting Lakshmi and Ganga with her vahana (transport) makara (crocodile), reflect his commitment to Brahmanical traditions.
• Samudragupta embodied the true essence of religion and was described as 'Anukampavan' (full of compassion) in the Allahabad inscription. He was noted for his generosity, giving away many hundreds of thousands of cows.

Ramgupta

• Ramgupta was initially known from traditional narratives, such as the Sanskrit play "Devichandragupta" by Vishakhadatta, and lacked contemporary epigraphical evidence. However, three Durjanpur inscriptions on Jaina tirthankara images were later discovered, mentioning him as the Maharajadhiraja.
• A significant number of his copper coins were found in the Eran-Vidisha region, classified into five distinct types, including Garuda, Garudadhvaja, lion, and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.
• Ramagupta is believed to be the elder son and immediate successor of Samudragupta, followed by his younger brother, Chandragupta II.
• In the play "Devichandragupta," Ramagupta is depicted as a weak and impotent king, afraid of warfare. He married Dhruvaswamini (Dhruvadevi), who was originally engaged to his brother Chandragupta II by force. Although he became the king of the Gupta empire, his brother was designated as the future king after Samudragupta's death.
• According to traditional accounts, Ramagupta attempted to expand his kingdom by attacking the Sakas in Gujarat. However, the campaign turned disastrous, and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king, Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvaswamini in exchange for peace. The weak king was inclined to accept these terms, infuriating his younger brother Chandragupta, who disguised himself as the queen, killed the Saka chief, and then murdered Ramagupta and married Dhruvaswamini.
• Historians are unsure about the liberties taken by the author Vishakadatta in recounting these events. However, it is known that Dhruvadevi was indeed Chandragupta II's chief queen, as evidenced by the Vaisali Terracotta Seal, which refers to her as "Mahadevi" Dhruvaswamin. The Bilsad Pillar Inscription of their son Kumaragupta I (414–455 CE) also identifies her as "Mahadevi Dhruvadevi."
• The official records of the Guptas do not mention Ramagupta and trace the succession directly from Samudragupta to Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (A.D. 380-412)

• Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, became the ruler after his father, Samudragupta.
• There are differing opinions among scholars about the succession. Some believe that Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son, Ramagupta, before Chandragupta II took the throne.

Golden Age of India:

• During Chandragupta II's reign, the Gupta Empire reached its peak.
• Art, architecture, and sculpture thrived, marking a period of significant cultural development in ancient India.
• This era is often referred to as the "Golden Age of India."

Expansion of the Empire:

• Chandragupta II expanded the Gupta Empire through both marriage alliances and military conquests.
• He married Kuberanaga of the powerful Naga family, which helped strengthen his position.

Political Influence in the Deccan:

• Chandragupta II's daughter, Prabhavati, married Vakataka king Rudrasena II, establishing Gupta influence in the Deccan region.
• After Rudrasena II's death, Prabhavatigupta ruled the Vakataka kingdom as a regent, effectively bringing it under Gupta control.

Defeat of the Shaka-Kshatrapas:

• Chandragupta II's most significant achievement was defeating the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexing their kingdom in western Malwa and Gujarat.
• He defeated their last ruler, Rudrasimha III, which greatly expanded Gupta territory.

Title of Vikramaditya:

• Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya, symbolizing his victories, particularly over the Saka Kshatrapas.
• This title had historical significance, being used by earlier rulers, including the founder of the Vikram Samvat calendar.

Trade and Commerce:

• His conquests provided access to the Western sea coast, enhancing trade and commerce.
• This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief city, Ujjain, which became a significant center during his reign.

Campaigns Against Foreign Tribes:

• Chandragupta II, as credited by the poet Kalidasa, is believed to have conquered around twenty-one kingdoms.
• He campaigned against various tribes, including the Parasikas, Hunas, and Kambojas, and extended his influence across the Himalayas.

Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription:

• The Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription, located in the Qutub-Minar complex in Delhi, is associated with King Chandra, often identified as Chandragupta II.
• The inscription highlights his military exploits, including victories over enemies from regions like Vanga (Bengal).

Achievements in Metallurgy:

• The pillar, made of 98% wrought iron, showcases ancient India's advanced metallurgy, having stood for over 1,600 years without rusting.

Empire Control:

• Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire, stretching from the Ganges River to the Indus River and from modern-day North Pakistan to the Narmada River.

Coinage:

• He continued issuing gold coins like the Sceptre type and introduced new types such as the Horseman and Lion-slayer types.
• Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins, replacing Kshatrapa coinage with Gupta symbols.
• He also issued lead and copper coins inspired by defeated tribes.

Religious Beliefs:

• From the time of Chandragupta II, the Gupta kings were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas, indicating their devotion to the Bhagavata tradition.
• The Bhagavata Purana, which became central to this tradition, depicted Krishna as the ultimate object of devotion, surpassing earlier Vedic figures like Vishnu and Hari.

Patronage of Scholars:

• Chandragupta II is traditionally believed to have patronized a group of nine renowned scholars known as the “Nine Gems” or “nava-ratna.”
• These scholars, including Kalidasa, Varahamihira, and Dhanvantri, were experts in various fields such as poetry, astrology, medicine, and linguistics.

Kalidasa:

• Kalidasa was a prominent Sanskrit poet and dramatist, known for his literary works like Shakuntala.

Varahamihira:

• Varahamihira was an expert in astrology and is renowned for his work Brhatsamhita.

Dhanvantri:

• Dhanvantri was a physician known for his expertise in medicine and diagnosis.

Other Scholars:

• Other scholars like Ghatakpara (sculpture and architecture), Shanku (geography), and Vetalabhadra (black magic and tantric sciences) also contributed significantly to various fields of knowledge during Chandragupta II's reign.

In summary, Chandragupta II, known as Vikramaditya, was a significant ruler of the Gupta Empire during the 4th century CE. His reign was marked by military conquests, cultural advancements, and the establishment of a vast and prosperous empire. The era is often referred to as the "Golden Age of India" due to the flourishing of art, architecture, and literature during this period.

Visit of Fa-Hien

• Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, traveled to India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II in search of original Buddhist texts. He embarked on his journey from China in 399 CE and arrived in India in 405 CE, traversing icy deserts and rugged mountains. Entering India from the northwest, he reached Pataliputra, where he collected Buddhist texts and sacred images.
• During his stay in India until 411 CE, Fa-Hien undertook a pilgrimage to significant Buddhist sites such as Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajgriha. He carefully observed the conditions of the Gupta Empire and later dedicated his life to translating and editing the scriptures he had gathered.
• Fa-Hien documented his travels in a book that provided insights into early Buddhism and the geography and history of various countries along the Silk Roads in the 5th century CE. His travelogues offer a vivid portrayal of Chandragupta’s empire, reflecting its political, religious, social, and economic aspects.
• He noted the peacefulness of India, the rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the administration. He stated that it was possible to travel from one end to another in the country without molestation, and without passports. He observed that all respectable persons were vegetarians, with meat-eating confined to lower castes and untouchables. Most citizens avoided onions, garlic, meat, and wine. He found Buddhism flourishing, but theistic Hinduism was also widespread.
• Fa-Hien’s records indicate a shift from sacrificial Brahminism to a more refined Hinduism. He noted that in the Gupta Empire, Indian culture reached a level of perfection that it would not attain again. Humanitarian ideas, likely influenced by Buddhism, moderated the severe punishments of earlier times. He observed that the death penalty was rarely imposed in north India, with most crimes punished by fines and serious offenses by amputation. Executions were uncommon.
• He described the Shudras as being kept outside the town and entering by making noise with a stick, marking them as butchers, hunters, and fishermen. The government’s income was primarily from revenue taxes, which were one-sixth of total production, with a notable absence of poll-tax and land tax. Fa-Hien depicted the people as rich and prosperous, emulating each other in virtuous practices. Charitable institutions and rest houses for travelers were common, and the capital boasted an excellent hospital.

• Officials received fixed incomes, and there was no contribution required from the people. Donations were common, with free hospitals maintained by the contributions of pious citizens. Fa-Hien was particularly impressed by Pataliputra and the grand palace of Ashoka.
• He provided detailed descriptions of Buddhist pilgrimages, noting the division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana. He observed the presence of twenty Buddha vihars in Mathura but noted the decline of conditions in Kapilavastu, Gaya, and Kushinagar, suggesting a weakening of Buddhism.
• The ruler of Madhya Pradesh, a worshipper of Vishnu, maintained cordial relations with both Hindus and Buddhists, indicating the religious tolerance of the society. While Fa-Hien mentioned Jainism and Shaivism, Yuan Chwang did not include Jainism in his accounts. Compared to Yuan Chwang, Fa-Hien was less observant about the social, economic, and political conditions of society. Yuan Chwang provided a comprehensive description of the period under King Harshavardhana, whereas Fa-Hien did not mention Chandragupta Vikramaditya by name.
• Despite the challenges posed by the broken Rome-China trade axis after the fall of the Han dynasty, the Gupta Empire prospered during Fa-Hien’s time. His writings remain crucial sources for understanding this historical period.

Kumaragupta I (412-454 A.D.)

• Chandragupta II passed away around A.D. 413, and his son,Kumaragupta I, succeeded him. Kumaragupta was born to Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini and is also known as Shakraditya and Mahendraditya.
• He is famous for erecting an iron pillar, which is still visible today at the Qutb complex in Mehraulli.
• The Bilsad inscription is the oldest record of his reign, dating to Gupta year 96, which corresponds to 415 CE. Other inscriptions from his reign include a yaksha figure from Mathura dated to 432 CE and a pedestal dated to 442 CE.
• Kumaragupta I maintained the vast empire built by his predecessors, but his later reign faced challenges. The Gupta Empire was threatened by the Pushyamitra rebellion in central India and invasions by the White Huns. However, Kumaragupta successfully defeated these threats and performed the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to commemorate his victories.
• The Tumain inscription mentions a prince Ghatotkachagupta as a governor of Airikina (Eran), appointed by Kumaragupta I. This region acted as a buffer state between the Huns and the Guptas as the Huns expanded their territory eastward.
• Kumaragupta issued new coins featuring images of Lord Kumara, his namesake. For example, a silver coin from his reign (414-455 CE) depicts the bust of King Kumaragupta with a cap decorated with crescents, along with the legend in Brahmi, “Most devout King of Kings Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.”

Skandagupta (454-467 A.D.)

• Skandagupta was the successor of Kumaragupta I and is considered one of the last significant rulers of the Gupta Empire.

Military Challenges and Triumphs:

• Skandagupta had to confront the Pushyamitras to secure his position.
• After defeating the Pushyamitra threat, he faced invasions from the Hephthalites, also known as the "White Huns," from the north-western frontiers.
• Skandagupta successfully repelled the Huna invasion in 455 A.D., a feat that earned him the title of Vikramaditya, similar to Chandragupta II.
• He also adopted the title of Kramaditya.

Economic Impact and Coinage:

• The prolonged military conflicts during his reign negatively impacted the empire's economy.
• The debasement of gold coinage during Skandagupta's time reflects these economic challenges.
• He was likely the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western India.
• Skandagupta issued various types of gold and silver coins, including:
  • Gold Coins: Archer type, King and Queen type, Chhatra type, Horseman type.
  • Silver Coins: Garuda type, Bull type, Altar type, Madhyadesha type.
• His initial gold coinage followed the old weight standard of approximately 8.4 grams, used by his father Kumaragupta I.
• Later in his reign, Skandagupta switched to a new suvarna standard weighing approximately 9.2 grams, with the Archer type coins becoming the standard for subsequent Gupta rulers.

Historical Records and Inscriptions:

• Skandagupta is mentioned in the Javanese text Tantrikamandaka.
• The Junagarh inscription from his reign details public works, including the repair of the Sudarsana lake, originally built during the Maurya period.
• The Junagadh rock also contains inscriptions of Ashoka, Rudradaman I, and Skandagupta.
• The last known date of Skandagupta's reign is 467 A.D., based on his silver coins.

Public Works:

• During Skandagupta's reign, significant public works were undertaken, as noted in the Junagarh inscription.
• The Sudarsana lake, initially constructed during the Maurya period, suffered damage due to excessive rains.
• Skandagupta's governor Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita oversaw the repair of the lake early in his rule.

Huna Invasion and Hephthalites Empire in India

• The Hunas were a group of Iranian-speaking tribes, part of the larger Xionite confederation from Central Asia. They were nomadic and entered India through the Khyber Pass around the 5th or 6th century CE. Initially, they faced resistance from the Gupta Empire and the Indian king Yasodharman. At their peak, the Huna empire extended into regions like Malwa in central India.
• The Xionites were divided into four groups based on direction: Northern Huna (Black Huns), Southern Huna (Red Huns), Eastern Huna (Celestial Huns), and Western Huna (White Huns or Hephthalites).
• Skandagupta, a Gupta ruler, is said to have repelled a White Huna invasion in 455 CE. However, the Huna continued to pressure South Asia’s northwest frontier (modern-day Pakistan) and eventually broke into northern India by the late 5th century, contributing to the decline of the Gupta Empire.
• The first Huna raids on Gandhara occurred in the late 5th and early 6th centuries CE, following Skandagupta’s death. Historical accounts suggest that the Hunas conquered Gandhara from the Kidarites around 475 CE.

(a)Toramana:

• Toramana was a ruler from the Hephthalite Empire who expanded his control over Gandhara and western Punjab. He played a crucial role in consolidating Hephthalite power in Punjab and extended his rule over northern and central India, including regions like Eran in Madhya Pradesh, as well as parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Kashmir.
• His reign came to an end when he was defeated by Bhanugupta, an Indian Emperor from the Gupta Empire, in 510 A.D.
• Toramana is known from various historical sources, including the Rajatarangini, written by Kalhaṇa, a Kashmiri Brahman in the 12th century CE. Coins and inscriptions also provide evidence of his rule, such as the Gwalior inscription written in Sanskrit.
• He was succeeded by his son Mihirakula in 520 A.D.

(b)Mihirakula:

• Mihirakula was a significant emperor of the Hephthalite Empire, which spanned present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern and central India. His capital was Sakala(modern-day Sialkot in Pakistani Punjab).
• The Guptas continued to resist the Hunas, forming alliances with neighboring Indian states to strengthen their position.
• The Gwalior inscription from Mihirakula's 15th regnal year indicates that his territory included areas like Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh and central India.
• Mihirakula faced defeats at the hands of Yasodharman, an Aulikara king from Malwa, in 528, and the Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta Baladitya, who had previously paid tribute to Mihirakula.
• According to the Chinese traveler Huen-tsang, the Hunas were defeated by Yasodharman in 528, and by 542, Mihirakula was driven from the plains of northern India. He sought refuge in Kashmir, where he was honored by the king.
• After some time, Mihirakula rebelled against the Kashmiri king, seized power, and invaded Gandhara, where he killed many inhabitants and destroyed Buddhist shrines, claiming to be a worshipper of Shiva.
• Yasodharman erected twin monolithic pillars at Sondani in Mandsaur District to commemorate his victory over Mihirakula.
• Yasodharman’s victory is recorded in inscriptions, and he was known as Vikramaditya.
• Kalhana, a Kashmiri poet, mentioned three individuals named Kalidasa, with the second Kalidasa being the court poet of Yasodharman.
• The Bijayagadh Stone Pillar Inscription of Vishnuvardhana, the son of Yasodharman, also references Yasodharman’s achievements.

(c)Later Hunas:

• After the 6th century, historical records about the Huna are scarce in India. It is believed that they might have formed matrimonial alliances with the Gurjars or were assimilated into the dominant Gurjar community.
• In some accounts, Huna is considered a minor gotra among the Gurjars.
• In northwestern India, the Rajputs are thought to have emerged from the merging of the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and the local population from northwestern India, although this view is disputed.

Decline of the Gupta Empire

• Skandagupta died around A.D. 467, and the succession after him is unclear. He was followed by:Purugupta(467–473),Kumaragupta II(473–476),Budhagupta(476–495?),Narasimhagupta Baladitya,Kumaragupta III,Vishnugupta,Vainyagupta, and Bhanugupta.
• During this period, the Gupta Empire faced continuous attacks from the Hun invaders, particularly the Hephthalites and later leaders like Toramana and Mihirakula.
• In the 480s, the Hephthalites breached the Gupta defenses in the northwest, leading to much of the northwest being overrun by the Huns by 500 CE. Despite their diminished power, the Guptas continued to resist the Huns. Bhanugupta managed to defeat Toramana around 510 CE.
• The Huns were eventually driven out of India in 528 CE by a coalition of Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta and Yashodharman, a king from Malwa. The Gupta rulers continued until about 550 CE, but by then, their power had significantly waned.

Purugupta

• Purugupta is known from the Bhitari seal of his grandson Kumaragupta III and other inscriptions. He was succeeded by Kumaragupta II.

Budhagupta

• Budhagupta succeeded Kumaragupta II and was a predecessor of Narasimhagupta Baladitya. He had strong alliances with the rulers of the Kannauj kingdom to drive out the Huns from Northern India.
• His reign is evidenced by the Eran stone pillar inscription of brothers Matrivishnu and Dhanyavishnu, which mentions Budhagupta as their emperor.
• The pillar, erected during Budhagupta’s reign, is 43 feet tall, including statues on top.
• Budhagupta’s authority extended to Mathura in the north, as shown by a Buddha image inscription from Mathura.

Vishnugupta and Vainyagupta

• Vishnugupta was the son of Kumaragupta III and the grandson of Narasimhagupta Baladitya. Information about him comes from a clay sealing found at Nalanda.
• Vainyagupta is known from a clay sealing and a copper plate inscription. The Nalanda sealing describes him as Maharajadhiraja and a devout worshipper of Vishnu. The Gunaighar copper plate inscription refers to him as Maharaja and a devotee of Shiva.

Bhanugupta

• Bhanugupta is known from a stone pillar inscription dated to 510-11 CE. The inscription, found by Cunningham, does not specify a king but mentions a Bhanugupta who was possibly not a sovereign.
• The inscription recounts a battle involving Bhanugupta and his chieftain Goparaja against the Maitras, marking an early instance of the Sati tradition.
• Sati Pillars from various periods have been found in Eran, using the Saka Samvat and mentioning the names of deceased individuals and their wives who became Sati together.

Causes of Decline of the Gupta Empire

• The Huna invasions were the primary reason for the decline of Gupta power.
• In addition to the Huna invasions, other factors contributing to the decline included competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa. Yashodharman, in 532 A.D., commemorated his conquests in northern India with pillars of victory. Although his rule was short-lived, it dealt a significant blow to the Gupta Empire.
• Internal attacks by the Pushyamitras, identified with the Patumitras and Durmitras of the Puranas, also destabilized Gupta power.
• The succession of weak rulers after Skandagupta contributed to the disintegration of the empire.
• The Guptas faced administrative weakness, with ineffective control over their regions. Their authority was strong only when powerful rulers occupied the throne.
• The crisis of succession and weak monarchs led local chiefs to declare independence, crippling the financial resources of the Gupta Empire.
• Skandagupta's efforts against the Huna attacks disrupted international trade in northwestern India, eroding a vital financial base.
• By the end of the 5th century and the beginning of the 6th century A.D., many regional powers declared independence, taking advantage of the chaotic conditions in the Gupta Empire.
• Some historians attribute the disintegration of the Gupta Empire to the beginning of feudalization, where land grants to religious and later secular beneficiaries led to loss of revenue and diminished administrative control. The growing importance of Samantas weakened central authority.
• The Guptas’ tilt towards Buddhism during the reigns of Kumaragupta and Buddhagupta, including the founding of Nalanda University and patronage of Buddhist learning, is seen as a factor in their decline.
• Divisions within the imperial family, concentration of power in local chiefs, a loose administrative structure, decline of foreign trade, and the growing practice of land grants for various purposes contributed to the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Administration

The Gupta Empire, known for its rich cultural heritage and advancements in various fields, had a well-structured administration that played a crucial role in maintaining its vast territories and ensuring effective governance. This administration was characterized by a mix of traditional practices and unique innovations that set it apart from previous empires like the Mauryas.

Titles and Authority:

• The Gupta rulers adopted grandiose titles such as Parameshvara Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka, suggesting the existence of lesser kings with substantial authority within the empire. This indicates a decentralized power structure where local rulers had significant influence.
• In inscriptions, particularly in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, rulers like Samudragupta were elevated to almost divine status, being referred to as a god on earth. This not only reinforced their authority but also reflected the cultural practice of associating kingship with divine qualities.
• Although kingship was hereditary, the absence of a strict practice of primogeniture allowed for flexibility in succession, which could lead to both stability and conflict within the royal family.

Council of Ministers and Officials:

• The Guptas maintained a bureaucratic administration, continuing the traditional machinery but with less complexity than the Mauryas.
• The Mantri(chief minister) headed civil administration, with other high officials like the Mahabaladikarta (commander-in-chief), Mahadandanayaka (general), and Mahapratihara (chief of palace guards).
• A new official,Sandhivigrahika(foreign minister), appeared in Gupta records, indicating a focus on foreign relations.
• Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas linked central and provincial administration, with the former being high officers and the latter restoring wealth conquered by the emperor.
• Recruitment was not limited to upper varnas, allowing for a mix of backgrounds in the administration, which sometimes led to hereditary posts and weakened royal control.

Provinces, Districts, and Villages:

• The Gupta Empire was divided into 26 provinces, each governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the kings.
• Provinces were further divided into districts(Vishayas), ruled by Kumaramatyas, Ayuktas, or Vishayapatis.
• Municipal administration involved representation from major local communities, including guild presidents, chief merchants, and artisans.
• The lowest unit of administration was the village, managed by local leaders with significant authority due to the absence of close state supervision.
• Village disputes were settled by local bodies with the help of village elders, reflecting a degree of autonomy in local governance.

Army:

• The Gupta army’s strength and organization were less impressive compared to the Mauryas, relying more on troops supplied by feudatories.
• Chariots became less prominent, with a shift towards cavalry as a major component of military strength.
• Infantry archers were crucial, with the Indian longbow being a significant weapon. Archers were protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and swords.
• The Guptas also maintained a navy, controlling regional waters and contributing to their military capabilities.
• Internal dissolution, rather than military defects, was a significant factor in the Gupta Empire’s collapse in the face of external invasions.

Revenue Administration:

• Land revenue and fines were primary sources of state income.
• Officers like Gopasramin and Pustapala played key roles in revenue collection and maintaining accounts.
• A regular department for land survey, measurement, and revenue collection was maintained by the Gupta kings.

Gupta Economy

Agriculture:

• Agricultural crops were the main resource produced by society, and a significant portion of state revenue came from agriculture.
• Many scholars argue that the state was the exclusive owner of land.
• The Paharpur copper plate inscription of Buddhagupta supports the idea of state ownership, with the king claiming theoretical ownership while peasants practically owned the land.
• Different types of land mentioned in inscriptions include:
• Kshetra: Land under cultivation.
• Khila: Uncultivable land.
• Aprahata: Forest land.
• Gopata Sarah: Pasture land.
• Vasti: Habitable land.
• Various land measures were known in different regions, such as Nivartana,Kulyavapa, and Dronavapa.
• The importance of irrigation for agriculture was recognized early on in India. According to the Narada Smriti, there were two kinds of dykes:
• Bardhya: Prevented floods.
• Khaya: Used for irrigation.
• Canals for preventing inundation were also mentioned by Amarasimha as jalanirgamah.
• Tanks were classified by size as vapi,tadaga, and dirghula.
• Another method of irrigation was the use of ghati-yantra or araghatta.

Land Grants:

• Sources from the Gupta period indicate significant changes in agrarian society. Feudal development emerged under the Guptas, involving the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators.
• Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, this practice became common during Gupta times.
• Land grants were made to religious functionaries, exempt from tax, allowing them to collect taxes from peasants that would otherwise go to the emperor.
• Religious grants were of two types:
• Agrahara grants: Given to Brahmanas, meant to be perpetual,hereditary, and tax-free, with all land revenue assigned.
• Devagrahara grants: Made to secular parties for the repair and worship of temples.
• Epigraphic evidence of land grants to officers for administrative and military services is lacking, but certain designations suggest that some state officials may have been rewarded with land grants.
• Land grants paved the way for feudal development in India.
• Inscriptions refer to the emergence of serfdom, where peasants were tied to their land even when it was given away.
• The right of subinfeudation granted to land grant recipients contributed to the repression of peasantry.
• Recipients could enjoy the land, cultivate it, or assign it to tenants under certain terms, which implied the right to evict tenants.
• This practice reduced permanent tenants to the status of tenants-at-will.
• The position of peasants was further undermined by the imposition of forced labor(Vishti) and new levies and taxes.

Crafts Production and Industry:

• Crafts production encompassed a wide range of items, with texts like the Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita listing various items, their Sanskrit names, and different categories of craftsmen.
• Important sites like Taxila,Ahichchhatra,Mathura,Rajghat,Kausambi, and Pataliputra yielded craft products such as earthen wares, terracottas, beads, glass objects, and metal items.
• Different varieties of silk and cloth, such as Kshauma and Pattavastra, were also mentioned.
• An inscription from Mandasor in the fifth century refers to a guild of silk weavers who migrated from south Gujarat to the Malwa region, indicating a decline in trade and commerce.
• Mining and metallurgy were among the flourishing industries during the Gupta period, with the Amarakosha providing a comprehensive list of metals, with iron being the most useful.
• The Mehrauli iron pillar of King Chandra, often identified as Chandragupta II, exemplifies the high stage of development in metallurgy.
• Metal technology advancements included the manufacture of seals and statues, particularly of the Buddha.
• Contemporary literature indicates the widespread use of jewellery by people during this time.
• Ivory work, stone cutting and carving, and sculpture were highly valued, with the cutting, polishing, and preparing of various precious stones associated with foreign trade.
• Pottery remained a basic part of industrial production, with a shift from elegant black-polished ware to ordinary red ware, sometimes enhanced with mica for a metallic finish.

Trade and Commerce:

• There were no significant material changes in trade routes, commercial organization, currency systems, or trade practices during the Gupta period.
• Two types of merchants,Sresthi(settled at a particular place) and Sarthavaha(caravan trader), continued to exist.
• Internal trade included various everyday commodities sold in village and town markets, while luxury goods were the principal articles of long-distance trade.
• Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti regulated trade practices of the time.
• Long-distance trade declined compared to earlier periods due to factors such as the introduction of silk production in the Byzantine Empire and later disruptions caused by the expansion of the Arabs under Islam.
• Indian merchants began to rely more on South-East Asian trade, establishing trading stations in various parts of South-East Asia.
• Guilds (nigama, sreni) remained major institutions in manufacturing and commercial enterprise, with autonomy in internal organization.
• The Buddhist Sangha became wealthy enough to engage in commercial activities.
• The rate of interest on loans varied based on purpose, with an average rate of twenty percent per annum, indicating increased confidence in overseas trade.
• Commercial decline is reflected in the scarcity of common-use coins, with the Guptas issuing the largest number of gold coins (dinaras) in ancient India.
• Coins of copper and silver were few, and Fa-Hien noted that cowries became the common medium of exchange.
• The economy during the Gupta period was primarily based on self-sufficient units of production in villages and towns, with a weakening money economy.
• Declining trade contributed to the decline of urban centers, particularly in the Gangetic plains, the heartland of the Gupta Empire.

Social Developments

• During the Gupta period, large-scale land grants to Brahmanas indicated the continued supremacy of Brahmanas. The term dvija(twice-born) was increasingly applied to Brahmanas. With greater emphasis on Brahmana purity, there was also a heightened focus on the impurity of outcastes.
• The Varna system underwent significant modifications due to the proliferation of castes. The Kshatriya caste expanded with the influx of the Hunas and later the Gurjars, who joined as Rajputs. The rise in the number of Shudra castes and untouchables was largely attributed to the absorption of backward forest tribes into settled Varna society. Sometimes, guilds of craftsmen evolved into distinct castes.
• It has been suggested that land transfers or land revenue transfers led to the emergence of a new caste, the Kayasthas(scribes), who challenged the Brahmanas' monopoly over scribal work.
• The position of Shudras improved during this period, as they were allowed to listen to the epics and the Puranas, and were permitted to perform certain domestic rites, which naturally brought fees to the priests. This change can be attributed to an improvement in the economic status of Shudras.
• However, the practice of untouchability intensified compared to earlier times. Penance was prescribed to atone for touching a chandala (an outcaste). Fa-Hien recorded that when a chandala entered a city or marketplace, he would strike a piece of wood to announce his arrival, allowing others to avoid him.
• The Varna system did not always operate smoothly. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, likely from the Gupta period, contains verses emphasizing the need for cooperation between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, possibly indicating some opposition from the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Anushashana Parva of the Mahabharata depicts Shudras as threats to the king.
• Most legal texts of the time were based on the Dharmashastra of Manu and elaborated on it. Notable works from this period include those of Yajnavalkya,Narada,Brihaspati, and Katyayana. The joint family system, a key feature of Hindu caste society, was prevalent during this time.

Social Life:

• Prosperous town dwellers enjoyed a life of comfort and ease. The Kamasutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana describes the life of a well-to-do citizen as one devoted to the pleasures and refinements of life.
• Theatrical entertainment was popular both in court circles and among the general public. Dance performances and music concerts were primarily held in the homes of the wealthy and discerning individuals.
• Gambling,animal fights,athletics, and gymnastics were important components of sporting events. Various forms of amusement, in which the general public participated, were essential to both religious and secular festivals.
• Chess, in its early form known as caturaṅga, is believed to have originated during this period. The term "caturaṅga" translates to "four divisions of the military" – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – which later evolved into the modern chess pieces.
• Contrary to Fa-Hien's assertion that vegetarianism was customary in India, meat was commonly consumed. The consumption of wine and the chewing of betel-leaf were regular practices.

Culture of the Gupta Age:

• The Gupta period is often referred to as the Golden Age of ancient India, particularly in the fields of art and literature. Despite some political and socio-economic challenges during this time, the era is marked by significant achievements in these areas.
• The Guptas were known for their substantial wealth, as evidenced by archaeological findings, including the issuance of a large number of gold coins. This wealth allowed princes and affluent individuals to support artists and writers.
• Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were prominent patrons of art and literature. Samudragupta is depicted on his coins playing the lute (veena), while Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining a court of nine luminaries, known as the Navratna.
• While the Gupta period is celebrated for its cultural achievements, it is important to note that the era was not without its challenges. Nonetheless, the contributions to art, literature, and culture during this time left a lasting impact, solidifying its reputation as a golden age in Indian history.

Social Life:

• Prosperous town dwellers enjoyed a life of comfort and ease. The Kamasutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana describes the life of a well-to-do citizen as one devoted to the pleasures and refinements of life.
• Theatrical entertainment was popular both in court circles and among the general public. Dance performances and music concerts were primarily held in the homes of the wealthy and discerning individuals.
• Gambling,animal fights,athletics, and gymnastics were important components of sporting events. Various forms of amusement, in which the general public participated, were essential to both religious and secular festivals.
• Chess, in its early form known as caturaṅga, is believed to have originated during this period. The term "caturaṅga" translates to "four divisions of the military" – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – which later evolved into the modern chess pieces. 
• Contrary to Fa-Hien's assertion that vegetarianism was customary in India, meat was commonly consumed. The consumption of wine and the chewing of betel-leaf were regular practices.

Gupta Arts and Architecture

Sculpture

• During the Gupta period, India entered a classical phase of sculpture where artistic techniques were perfected, distinct styles were developed, and ideals of beauty were precisely defined.
• The Gupta sculptures became timeless models of Indian art, influencing not only India but also Indian colonies in the Far East, such as Siam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, Central Asia, China, and Japan. These regions adopted and locally modified the serene and masterful depictions of Buddha.
• Gupta sculpture represents the culmination of earlier artistic trends, blending the plasticity of Mathura with the elegance of Amravati. While rooted in earlier styles, Gupta sculptures possess a unique quality that sets them apart.
• In Gupta art, the female figure often becomes the focal point, with the human image as the central element of sculpture. The period is known for the evolution of idealized forms of deities, both Buddhist and Brahmanical.
• Mathura's art during the Gupta Empire, particularly between the 4th and 6th centuries AD, showcased a high level of sophistication, with examples like the red sandstone image of Buddha. Gupta artistry is considered the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art, combining Hellenistic influences with Indian elements.
• Metal casting reached impressive heights, with large Buddha images made of copper noted by Fa-Hien, though many are no longer traceable. The Gupta period also saw the emergence of Vishnu, Shiva, and other Hindu gods in sculpture, with notable examples found in the Deogarh temple.
• Terracotta art from this era included small figurines and plaques, with significant pieces found in places like Kaushambi, Tajghat, Bhita, and Mathura.
• The Vakatakas, contemporaneous with the Guptas in the Deccan, achieved high artistic perfection, evident in sites like Ajanta, Ellora, and Aurangabad.

Architecture

(a)Free Standing Temple:

• The Gupta period is characterized by the emergence of free-standing temples, marking the beginning of Indian temple architecture. These temples were simple yet significant in shaping later architectural developments.
• The temples featured various styles, including:
• Flat-roofed, square temples: With shallow pillared porches, seen in examples like temple No. XVII at Sanchi and the Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran.
• Square temples with ambulatory passages: Preceded by pillared porches, exemplified by the Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara and the Siva temple at Bhumara.
• Squat sikhara temples: Notable in the Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh, the earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India, featuring a distinctive shikhara or tower.
• Terracotta temples: Such as the Bhitargaon Temple, the oldest surviving terracotta Hindu shrine with a roof and a high shikhara.
• Brick temples: Like the Bhitargaon Temple, showcasing early architectural innovation.

(b) Rock Cut Caves:

• Rock-cut caves during the Gupta period continued earlier forms, with notable examples at Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh, Kanheri, and Elephanta.
• The Elephanta cave, especially the Trimurti sculpture, exemplifies Gupta-Chalukyan art, representing aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction.
• Ajanta's Chaitya and Vihara caves, particularly Vihara cave No. XVI and Chaitya cave No. XIX, are outstanding artistic achievements of the period.
• Udayagiri caves in Madhya Pradesh house some of the earliest Brahmanical shrines, showcasing early Gupta rock-cut architecture.
• Mogulrajapuram Caves, Undavalli Caves, and Akkanna Madanna Caves in Andhra Pradesh also reflect the rock-cut architectural style of the Gupta period.

Akkana Madanna Cave Temple:

• Located in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh.
• Built in the 17th century, but the caves date back to the 6th and 7th centuries.
• A nearby cave is from the 2nd century BC.
• Features the Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

(c) Stupa:

• Stupas were constructed in large numbers, with notable examples at Sarnath (Dhamekh Stupa), Rajgir (Jarasindha ki Baithak), Mirpur Khan in Sindh, and Ratnagiri (Orissa).
• Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath was documented by Xuanzang during his visit in 640 CE.

Paintings:

• During the Gupta period, the art of painting reached its peak, especially evident in the wall frescoes of the Ajanta and Bagh caves.
• These paintings, primarily from the Gupta era but covering a broader period from the 1st century BC to the 7th century AD, depict various events from the lives of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddhas as narrated in the Jatakas.

• The Ajanta paintings, located in Maharashtra, showcase a remarkable blend of architecture, sculpture, and painting, creating a harmonious unity of expression.
• Although there is no evidence that the Guptas sponsored the Ajanta paintings, the tradition laid the groundwork for new artistic creations both in India and abroad.
• Characteristics of Gupta paintings include religious and spiritual themes, simplicity of style, harmonious blending of technique and subject, and a refined aesthetic sense.
• Besides Buddhism, elements of Hinduism can also be observed in the wall paintings from the Gupta Empire.