Akbar’s Religious Views and Social Reforms | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Akbar's Religious Policy: State vs. Personal Beliefs:

• There is a distinction between Akbar's state policies and his personal ideas and beliefs regarding religion.
• While closely related, Akbar's state policy was influenced by Turko-Mughal traditions, the Hindu-Muslim rapprochement movement, and his interest in sufism.

Influence of Historical Figures on Akbar's Policies:

• Chingiz Khan and Timur practiced religious tolerance, avoiding persecution of different faiths.
• Babur and Humayun exhibited similar eclectic policies, with Humayun even favoring Shi-ites.
• Abdul Latif, a Sunni in Iran and a Shia in India, was chosen by Humayun as a tutor for Akbar, reflecting this broad tradition of liberalism.

15th Century Religious Tolerance:

• Various rulers in the 15th century adopted more liberal policies of religious tolerance, fostering communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
• These sentiments were influenced by the teachings of saints like Guru Nanak,Kabir, and Chaitanya, as well as the verses of the Persian poet Hafez, advocating human sympathy and a liberal outlook.

Role of Bhakti Saints and Sufis:

• Bhakti saints like Chaitanya and Kabir welcomed all individuals regardless of their faiths, rejecting differences based on scriptural authority.
• Sufis, especially the Chishtis and Kubrawiyas, also made no distinctions between people based on faith, with their khanqahs open to all.
• Abdul Qaddus Gangohi's work shows the widespread use of Hindi bhakti songs in the sama(musical gatherings) of some Sufi saints.

Political Appointments in Provincial Kingdoms:

• In various provincial kingdoms like Gujarat,Malwa, and Kashmir, Hindus were appointed to significant positions at both local and central levels.
• Under the Lodis, some Hindu rajas were elevated to the position of amirs.
• The rise of Hemu to a prominent position after the death of Islam Shah reflected this trend.
• However, instances of intolerance and temple desecration were also present during this period.

Influence of Akbar's Tutors on Religious Tolerance:

• Akbar's childhood tutors, including two Irani Shias, were largely free from sectarian biases.
• They played a crucial role in shaping Akbar's later inclination towards religious tolerance.

Overall Cultural Legacy:

• All the aforementioned factors contributed to Akbar's cultural legacy.
• They significantly influenced both his thinking and his state policies regarding religion.

The Early Phase (1556-73)

Akbar's Early Reforms and Religious Policies:

• Shortly after taking charge, Akbar showed his broadmindedness by abolishing the pilgrim tax on Hindus visiting sacred sites like Mathura in 1563.
• He prohibited the enslavement of the wives and children of rebellious villagers and married Rajput princesses without forcing them to convert to Islam.
• Akbar allowed these princesses to practice their own religions within the palace.
• Birbal, a close advisor to Akbar, was permitted to carry and worship idols, reflecting Akbar's early efforts to win over Hindus despite the influence of orthodox scholars.
• In 1564, Akbar abolished the jizyah tax on Hindus, a decision supported by his advisor Abul Fazl, despite opposition from the ulama.
• Abul Fazl argued that the jizyah was imposed not for profit but out of contempt for Hindus.
• Some modern historians suggest that Abul Fazl might have revised the date of jizyah's abolition to 1564 to highlight Akbar's liberalism, while Badayuni places it in 1579.
• During this period, Akbar maintained a public image of an orthodox Muslim, observing daily prayers and sending delegations to haj.
• He was influenced by Abdullah Sultanpuri and Shaikh Abdun Nabi, both of whom were later found to be less than scholarly.
• While Akbar promoted a broad and liberal religious policy, the court was still under the influence of orthodox ulama like Abdun Nabi, who persecuted dissenters.
• Notable figures such as Mirza Isfahani and Mir Yaqub Kashmiri were executed for their beliefs during this period, and even Mahdawism was persecuted.

The Second Phase (1573-80)

Akbar's Transformation and Religious Shift (1581-1605):

• During this period, Akbar underwent a significant transformation in his religious views, influenced by intense discussions and introspection. This shift had a profound impact on state politics.
• Akbar's military successes against the Uzbek nobles and in regions like Malwa, Rajasthan, and Gujarat reinforced his belief that he was divinely chosen to unify India.
• Historian Badayuni noted that the empire expanded daily, with no remaining opponents. This allowed Akbar to engage more deeply with religious ascetics and the teachings of the Muinniyyah sect.
• Akbar spent considerable time discussing the Quran and the Hadith, delving into topics like Sufism, philosophy, and law.
• From a young age, Akbar was drawn to the masnavis of liberal Sufi thinkers like Maulana Rum and Hafiz. As a ruler, he honored numerous Sufi saints by visiting their tombs, including that of Muinuddin Chishti.

The Ibadat Khana Debates

Background of the Ibadat Khana:

• Built in 1575 at Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar.
• A large rectangular building around the cell of a Sufi saint,Shaikh Abdullah Niyazi.
• Located near the Imperial Palace and Anup Talao.

Tradition of Religious Debates:

• Public arguments among different faiths were common in history, seen under the Umayyads, Abbasids, and Timurids.
• Akbar was inspired by rulers like Sulaiman Karrani, who engaged in nightly discussions with scholars.

Initial Phase of Ibadat Khana:

• Debates started with only Muslims.
• Akbar participated every Thursday night after state duties.
• Scholars initially included sufi shaikhs,ulama, and Akbar's close companions.

Topics and Dynamics:

• Discussions included sensitive topics like the number of legal wives for a ruler.
• Differences in interpretations upset Akbar, who aimed for truth, while others sought to dominate debates.

Expansion and Challenges:

• In 1578, debates were opened to Hindus,Jains,Christians, and Zoroastrians.
• This led to confusion and challenges on core beliefs like the Quranic revelation and Prophethood.
• Akbar eventually closed the Ibadat Khana by 1582 due to the controversies.

Akbar's Intentions:

• It remains unclear what Akbar hoped to achieve, whether to unify different sects or understand fundamental truths.
• Private discussions could have sufficed for personal understanding, even during the Ibadat Khana period.

The Mahzar, and The Beginning of a New State Policy

• The Mahzar, a document signed by seven prominent ulama in 1579, sparked controversy regarding its implications for Emperor Akbar's authority.
• It raised questions about whether Akbar sought to emulate the Pope by claiming infallibility or aimed to assert independence from the Ottoman Khalifa and Shia rulers of Iran.
• The Mahzar granted Akbar the power to interpret laws, despite his limited literacy.
• The document portrayed Akbar as the "Sultan of Islam, the asylum of mankind, the commander of the faithful, the shadow of God over worlds," attributes associated with the khalifa.
• There was no opposition to declaring Akbar as the khalifa of the age, as the Timurids did not recognize any outside authority as khalifa.
• The Mahzar argued, using Quranic verses and Hadis (some of which were questionable), that Akbar's position was superior to that of a mujtahid (interpreter of holy laws) in God's eyes.
• It asserted that in case of conflicting opinions among mujtahids on a religious matter, Akbar could choose any opinion for the welfare of mankind and administrative efficiency.
• Akbar was also empowered to issue any decree not contradicting explicit Quranic or Hadis directives, aiming for the greater good of humanity.
• Earlier Indian rulers, like Balban and Alauddin Khalji, had similar claims to enforce laws they deemed necessary, regardless of sharia conformity.
• During discussions in the Ibadat Khana, Akbar became aware of the theologians' differing opinions on various subjects.
• A rift between Akbar and the orthodox ulama emerged when a controversy arose over the punishment of a brahman accused of misappropriating materials for a mosque and insulting Islam.
• Akbar favored a lenient approach, but the ulama were divided on the punishment, leading to a widening gulf between Akbar and Abdun Nabi, who favored execution.
• Shaikh Mubarak, a respected scholar, advised Akbar that as the Imam of the age and a mujtahid, he did not need the ulama's assistance in issuing commands.
• The Mahzar was a response to these debates and marked a shift in Akbar's relationship with the ulama.
• While some ulama signed willingly, others, like Abdun Nabi and Abdullah Sultanpuri, did so reluctantly.
• Akbar did not claim to be a mujtahid himself in the document but asserted the right to choose between different interpretations for public good and administrative needs.
• The Mahzar represented a significant declaration of Akbar's principles, particularly the sulh kul policy, and marked a definitive break with orthodox ulama.
• Internationally, the document reflected Akbar's ambition to position India as a land of sectarian peace, equal to powerful West Asian rulers like the Ottoman and Safavid empires.
• It highlighted India's stability and attracted learned ulama and lawyers from Arab and Ajam (Iraq and Iran) to make it their home.
• Akbar also used the document to remind the ulama that the state machinery was intended for the welfare of the people.

Breach with the Orthodox Ulama

Akbar's Conflict with the Orthodox Ulama:

• A final split between Akbar and the orthodox ulama came quickly as it was evident that Akbar was determined to follow his own path.
• The Mahzar was not meant to create divisions among the ulama, who were already divided between two main figures: Abdullah Sultanpuri and Shaikh Abdun Nabi, who were openly antagonistic towards each other.
• Akbar was repulsed by the ulama’s superficiality, bigotry, and corruption.
• It was discovered that Abdullah Sultanpuri evaded zakat by transferring his property to his wife temporarily, a practice also followed by others.
• Abdun Nabi’s wakil was found to accept large bribes for confirming rent-free grants.
• In 1579, Akbar sent Abdullah Sultanpuri and Abdun Nabi to lead haj pilgrims to Mecca, ordering them not to return without his permission.
• Despite their banishment, discontent among the ulama grew.
• In 1580, a group of nobles in Bengal and Bihar rebelled against Akbar, supported by the ulama.
• Mulla Muhammad Yazdi, the qazi of Jaunpur, declared rebellion against Akbar lawful, while the qazi of Bengal saw it as divine revenge for depriving the ulama of their madadd-i-maash grants.
• After quelling the rebellion, both qazis were summoned to Agra and met with severe punishments.
• Akbar's harsh actions against the ulama and sufis were driven by administrative needs, not by hostility towards Islam or orthodox Muslims.
• Hearing about the rebellion against Akbar, Abdullah Sultanpuri and Abdun Nabi, who had criticized Akbar in Mecca, returned to India in 1582 only to find the rebellion had been defeated.
• Abdullah Sultanpuri died in Ahmadabad, where gold ingots were found in his family graveyard and confiscated.
• Abdun Nabi was taken to Fatehpur, where he was handed over to Todar Mal to verify the amounts he had received for distribution in Mecca.
• Later, a mob killed Abdun Nabi in prison.

Re-organisation of the Madadd-i-Maash Grants

Traditional Role of the State in Supporting Scholars and Indigents:

• The state traditionally supported scholars, spiritual practitioners, indigents, widows, and unemployed respectable individuals both in India and elsewhere.
• In India, land grants for this purpose were known as shasan, while in Muslim states, they were referred to as milk,madadd-i-mashh, or sayurghal, supervised by the sadr.
• Beneficiaries were often Muslims, with some non-Muslims being supported by Hindu rajas who controlled significant land.

Akbar's Administration of Land Grants:

• Initially,Akbar entrusted the distribution of madadd-i-maash lands to the sadr.
• During the Lodi and Suri periods, extensive grants were made to Afghans and their supporters, the Shaikhzadas.
• During Bairam Khan's regency,Shaikh Gadai attempted to reallocate these grants but with limited success.

Changes Under Shaikh Abdun Nabi:

• In 1565,Shaikh Abdun Nabi became the sadr and implemented key changes:
• Resumption of madadd-i-maash grants from Afghans to crown lands.
• Certification by Abdun Nabi for grant confirmations.
• Ordered holders of multiple grants to consolidate them in one location.

Abdun Nabi's Authority and Complaints:

• Akbar allowed Abdun Nabi full authority in grant distribution.
• Abdun Nabi was known for distributing large areas of land as madadd-imaash, pensions, and religious endowments, surpassing previous grants.
• Complaints against him led Akbar to investigate rent-free grants of those holding over five hundred bighas of land, aiming to reduce such grants and encourage trade and professions.

Reorganization of Sadrs and Grant Regulations:

• In 1580, the empire was divided into subahs, each with its own sadr.
• The empire was further divided into six circles, each supervised by a supervisor.
• In 1589, new rules mandated that rent-free lands be half tilled and half cultivable, with penalties for excess tilled land.

Expansion of Rent-Free Grants to Non-Muslims:

• Initially,rent-free grants were primarily for Muslims, with some exceptions.
• After 1575, under Akbar's influence,grants were extended to Hindus,Jains,Parsis,Jesuits, and others.
• Saints and ascetics without worldly desires also began receiving cash grants.
• Akbar established Dharmapura and Khairpura to feed poor Hindus and Muslims, and later Jogipura for jogis.

End of Orthodox Ulama Dominance and Tightened Grant Rules:

• The decline of orthodox ulama dominance allowed for a more equitable distribution of state patronage across different faiths.
• Rules for grants were tightened, with scrutiny for grants over 100 bighas and periodic reviews to eliminate undeserving grantees and include new ones.

The Third or Final Phase of Akbar’s Religious Beliefs and State Policy (1581-1605)

Akbar's Evolving Religious Beliefs:

• Akbar's religious ideas developed gradually, influenced by the Islamic philosopher Ibn-i-Arabi, leading to his strong belief in uncompromising monotheism, known as Tauhid-i-Ilahi.
• He valued direct communion with God through meditation, rejecting blind imitation of traditional practices.
• Akbar's deep faith in God emphasized individual responsibility for actions, and he held a special reverence for light (nur), as seen in the Sun and Fire.

Influence of Other Religions:

• There was debate about the extent of Akbar's influence from Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, or Christian beliefs.
• Critics like Badayuni accused Akbar of adopting Hindu practices, such as sun and fire worship, while others linked his respect for fire to Zoroastrianism.
• Jain influence was seen in Akbar's ban on animal slaughter on certain days and his interest in the concept of transmigration, though he rejected its Hindu interpretation.

Engagement with Jainism:

• Akbar engaged in discussions with Jain scholars and was particularly impressed by their teachings, especially on non-violence and vegetarianism.
• His interactions with Jain Acharya Hiravijaya Suri led to debates on religion and philosophy, influencing Akbar's dietary choices and policies favoring Jains.

Respect for All Religions:

• Akbar believed in the fundamental truth in all religions but criticized blind devotion and ceremonial practices.
• He respected all religions without adhering strictly to any, exemplified by his observance of various festivals and his efforts to maintain harmony among different faiths.

Challenges to Akbar's Eclecticism:

• Akbar's religious approach faced criticism from orthodox mullahs and Christian missionaries, who accused him of straying from traditional Islamic practices.
• Despite these challenges, Akbar aimed for a flexible Islam that could reconcile reason with faith and adapt to political realities.

Islamic Identity and Social Reforms:

• Opposition to Akbar's reforms was partly rooted in a desire to preserve the primacy of Islam and the theologians' superiority over other faiths.
• The slogan of "Islam in danger" was raised by those resisting social reforms and advocating for a more exclusive Islamic identity.

Din-i-Ilahi 

Social Reforms and Towards Integration 

Akbar's Efforts in Promoting Religious Understanding and Social Reforms:

• Translation Bureau for Religious Texts: Akbar established a translation bureau to translate religious and literary works from Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. This initiative aimed to foster understanding among different religious communities.
• Panel of Scholars: A panel of scholars, including pandits (Hindu scholars), was appointed to oversee the translations. The works translated included fables, legends, religious texts, and poetic dramas.
• Examples of Translated Works: Some of the notable works translated included the Sanskrit epics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, religious texts like the Gita, and literary works like Nal Daman.
• Encouraging Inquiry and Research: Akbar aimed to encourage inquiry and research into religious matters by translating these works. This was intended to replace blind following with a more analytical approach to religion.
• Critique of Religious Ignorance: Abul Fazl, a scholar during Akbar's reign, criticized the ignorance of religious leaders from both the Hindu and Muslim communities regarding each other's religious texts. He emphasized the need for a deeper understanding and critical engagement with religious writings.
• Translation of Christian Gospels: For the first time, the Christian Gospels were translated into Persian, showcasing Akbar's interest in promoting inter-religious understanding.
• Translation of Historical and Scientific Works: Works on history, astronomy, and mathematics were also translated into Persian. Notable examples include Kalhan's Rajtarangini and Bha skara's Lilavati.
• Social and Moral Reforms: Akbar implemented various social and moral reforms such as regulating prostitution, allowing wine for medicinal purposes, and promoting widow remarriage. He also set guidelines for marriage, including raising the marriage age and banning cousin marriages.
• Progressive Measures: Akbar's measures included banning sati (the practice of widow burning) without consent, prohibiting slavery, and allowing individuals to revert to their original religion if they had been forcibly converted.
• Promotion of Arts and Education: Akbar encouraged artists, poets, and musicians, making his court a hub of cultural activities. He also revised the educational syllabus to emphasize moral education and secular subjects.
• Secular and Liberal Governance: Akbar's policies promoted a secular and liberal approach to governance, allowing the construction of places of worship for various religions and encouraging cultural integration.
• Challenges for Successors: Despite Akbar's efforts to create a secular and integrated society, his successors faced the challenge of managing a deeply traditional and hierarchical society.