The Peasant Movements of the 1920s and 1930s | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Early Peasant Movements: Indigo Revolt (1859-60) (or Nilbidroha)

• Indigo planting in Bengal began in 1777, with European planters exploiting local peasants by forcing them to grow indigo instead of more profitable crops like rice. The planters coerced peasants into fraudulent contracts and advance payments.
• Peasants faced intimidation through kidnappings, illegal confinement, flogging, attacks on women and children, seizure of cattle, house destruction, crop devastation.
• In 1859, led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas from Nadia district, peasants revolted against indigo cultivation, resisting planters and their armed retainers.
• Peasants organized counterattacks against planter violence, resisted evictions, initiated legal actions with community support.
• The Bengali intelligentsia backed the peasants through newspaper campaigns, mass meetings, legal support. Harish Chandra Mukhopadhyay and Dinabandhu Mitra highlighted peasants' struggles.
• The revolt is seen as a non-violent revolution, foreshadowing Gandhi's passive resistance. It prompted government action with the Indigo Commission, leading to legal protections for ryots.
• By the end of 1860, indigo cultivation in Bengal declined as planters shut down factories.

Pabna Agrarian Leagues

• In the 1870s and 1880s, many areas in Eastern Bengal experienced agrarian unrest due to the harsh practices of the Zamindars. These Zamindars imposed increased rents beyond legal limits and obstructed tenants from gaining occupancy rights under Act X of 1859.
• To achieve their goals, the Zamindars resorted to forcible evictions, seizure of cattle and crops, lengthy, expensive legal battles in courts, putting poor peasants at a disadvantage.
• Fed up with the oppressive regime, peasants in Yusufshahi Pargana of Pabna district formed an agrarian league to resist Zamindar demands. The league organized a rent strike, where ryots refused to pay increased rents, challenging the Zamindars in court.
• Funds were raised by ryots to fight legal cases, the struggle spread throughout Pabna and other districts of East Bengal, primarily through legal resistance with minimal violence.
• Although peasant discontent persisted until 1885, most cases were resolved, partly through official persuasion and partly due to Zamindar fears. Many peasants succeeded in acquiring occupancy rights and resisting increased rents.
• The Government also pledged to legislate protections for tenants against Zamindari oppression. In 1885, the Bengal Tenancy Act was enacted.
• Unlike in the indigo rebellion, where intelligentsia supported peasants against European planters, during the Pabna rebellion, some Indian intellectuals, such as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt, the Indian Association under Surendranath Banerjee, supported the peasants' cause against Indian Zamindars.

Deccan Riots

• In the Deccan region of western India, ryots faced heavy taxation under the Ryotwari system. They found themselves caught in a cycle of exploitation, with moneylenders as the main beneficiaries.
• These moneylenders were often outsiders, such as Marwaris or Gujaratis. The situation deteriorated due to a decline in cotton prices after the American Civil War (1864), a 50% increase in land revenue by the government in 1867, a series of poor harvests.
• In 1874, tensions between moneylenders and peasants led to a social boycott movement against the outsider moneylenders. Ryots refused to buy from their shops or cultivate their fields.
• Barbers, washermen, shoemakers also refused to serve the moneylenders. This social boycott spread to villages like Poona, Ahmednagar, Sholapur, Satara, eventually escalating into agrarian riots with attacks on moneylenders' properties and the public burning of debt bonds and deeds.
• The government managed to suppress the movement but, as a conciliatory measure, passed the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act in 1879.
• During this time, some members of the modern nationalist intelligentsia in Maharashtra supported the peasants' cause.

Later Movements

The peasant movements of the 20th century were significantly influenced by and had a profound impact on the national freedom struggle.

Peasant Movement in 1920’s:

• Kisan Sabha Movement and Eka Movement
• Mappila Revolt
• Bardoli Satyagraha

The Kisan Sabha Movement

• After the annexation of Avadh in 1856 and the 1857 revolt, the Awadh Talukdars regained their lands. By the late 19th century, the taluqdars(big landlords) had strengthened their grip on the agrarian society of the province.
• The majority of cultivators faced high rents, summary evictions (bedakhali), illegal levies, renewal fees, or nazrana. The rise in food and other essential prices post-World War I intensified this oppression, making tenants in Avadh more receptive to messages of resistance.
• Thanks to the efforts of Home Rule activists, kisan sabhas were organized in Uttar Pradesh (UP). The UP Kisan Sabha was founded in February 1918 by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, with support from Madan Mohan Malaviya.
• By late 1919, grassroots peasant activity emerged, evident in reports of nai-dhobi bandhs(a form of social boycott) in Pratapgarh district. Led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi and former indentured laborer in Fiji, peasants initiated these bandhs to deny landlords services like barbers and washermen.
• By June 1919, the UP Kisan Sabha had 450 branches, with leaders like Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh, Baba Ramchandra. In June 1920,Nehru was urged by Baba Ramchandra to visit these villages, leading to close contacts with the villagers.
• The kisans found support in Mehta, the Deputy Commissioner of Pratapgarh, who promised to investigate complaints. The Kisan Sabha at village Roor in Pratapgarh district became a hub of activity, with about one lakh tenants registering complaints. Gauri Shankar actively worked on tenant complaints like bedakhli and nazrana, leading to pressure on landlords to change their practices.
• The Awadh Kisan Sabha was formed in October 1920 in Pratapgarh due to differences within nationalist ranks. This new body unified grassroots kisan sabhas across Awadh.
• The Awadh Kisan Sabha urged kisans to refuse bedakhali land, not offer hali and begar(forms of unpaid labor), boycott non-compliant individuals, resolve disputes through Panchayats.
• In January 1921, activities shifted from mass meetings to looting bazaars, houses, granaries, clashes with police, particularly in districts like Rai Bareilly,Faizabad, Sultanpur.
• During the early months of 1921, it was challenging to distinguish between a Non-cooperation meeting and a peasant rally in Awadh.
• The movement eventually declined due to government repression and the passing of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.

Eka Movement:

• In late 1921, farmers in northern districts of the United Provinces, like Hardoi, Bahraich, Sitapur, began to express dissatisfaction due to various issues.
• The main problems included:
  • High rents that were 50% above the official rates.
  • Harsh treatment by thikedars (revenue collectors).
  • Share-rent practices that were unfair.
• The Eka Movement, also known as the Unity Movement, involved peasants gathering for meetings where they participated in a religious ritual and made vows to uphold certain principles.
• These vows included agreeing to:
  • Pay only the recorded rent, but on time.
  • Not abandon their land when evicted.
  • Refuse to perform forced labor.
  • Not assist criminals.
  • Follow the decisions of the Panchayat (village council).
• The movement was led by grassroots leaders such as Madari Pasi and other low-caste figures, along with some small Zamindars(landowners).
• However, by March 1922, the movement faced severe repression from the authorities, leading to its decline.

Mappila Revolt:

• In August 1921, poor conditions for peasants in the Malabar district of Kerala led to a rebellion by Mappila (Muslim) tenants. They were upset about issues like insecurity of tenure, high rents, unfair landlord practices. Although there had been earlier instances of Mappila resistance in the 19th century, the scale of the 1921 uprising was unprecedented.
• The spark for this rebellion came from the Malabar District Congress Conference in April 1920, which supported the tenants' cause and called for regulations to govern landlord-tenant relations. This was a significant shift, as previously, landlords had prevented the Congress from backing the tenants. Following the conference, tenants' associations were formed in Kozhikode and other parts of the district.
• At the same time, the Khilafat Movement was gaining momentum, with little distinction between Khilafat and tenants' meetings. The movement was primarily supported by Mappila tenants, with Hindu participation being minimal, though some Hindu leaders did support it.
• Leaders of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement, such as Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, Maulana Azad, addressed Mappila gatherings. After the arrest of national leaders, local Mappila leaders took over the leadership.
• In August 1921, the arrest of a priest leader, Ali Musaliar, triggered widespread riots. Initially, the targets were symbols of British authority—courts, police stations, treasuries, unpopular landlords (mostly Hindu). However, the declaration of martial law and subsequent repression changed the nature of the rebellion.
• The rebellion took on communal overtones as many Hindus were seen by the Mappilas as supporting the authorities. This shift separated the Mappilas from the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement. By December 1921, all resistance had ceased.
• The militant Mappilas were left demoralized and largely withdrew from politics until independence. The peasant movement in Kerala would later emerge under Left leadership.

Note:

Peasant Movements in U.P. and Malabar

• Connection to National Politics: The peasant movements in U.P. and Malabar were closely tied to national-level politics.
• Influence of Home Rule Leagues: In U.P., the movements were influenced by the Home Rule Leagues and later by the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movements.
• Merger of Movements: In Avadh, during early 1921, it was hard to differentiate between Non-Cooperation meetings and peasant rallies. A similar situation occurred in Malabar, where Khilafat and tenants' meetings merged.
• Recourse to Violence: The peasants' resort to violence created a rift between them and the national movement.
• Nationalist Leaders' Appeals: Nationalist leaders, including Gandhiji, urged peasants to avoid violence and extreme actions like stopping rent payments to landlords.
• Protection from Consequences: The national leadership's advice aimed to protect peasants from the harsh consequences of violent revolts.
• Government Repression: In both U.P. and Malabar, the government responded with heavy repression to suppress the movements.
• Peasant Demands: Peasants sought an end to ejectments, illegal levies, exorbitant rents, not the abolition of rent or landlordism.
• National Leadership's Support: The national leadership supported the peasants' demands but cautioned against extreme measures like refusing to pay rent.
• Neutrality of Small Landlords: Extreme actions could push small landlords closer to the government, jeopardizing their neutrality in the conflict between the government and the national movement.

Bardoli Satyagraha:

• In January 1926, the Bardoli taluqa in Surat district saw heightened political activity when authorities decided to increase land revenue by 30 percent.
• The Congress leaders protested, leading to the formation of a Bardoli Inquiry Committee, which deemed the revenue hike unjustified.
• In February 1926,Vallabhbhai Patel was invited to lead the movement.
• The women of Bardoli honored Patel with the title of "Sardar."
• Under Patel's leadership, the Bardoli peasants decided to refuse payment of the revised assessment until an independent tribunal was appointed or the current amount was accepted as full payment.
• To organize the movement, Patel established 13 chhavanis(workers' camps) and launched the Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika to mobilize public opinion.
• An intelligence wing was created to ensure compliance with the movement's resolutions, those opposing the movement faced social boycott.
• The mobilization of women was a key focus, K.M. Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative Council in support of the movement.
• By August 1928, tensions escalated in the area, with the possibility of a railway strike in Bombay.
• Gandhi arrived in Bardoli to monitor the situation, the government sought a way to withdraw gracefully.
• The government stipulated that the enhanced rent be paid by all occupants before a committee would review the matter. The committee later found the revenue hike unjustified and recommended a rise of 6.03 percent only.

Peasant Movements in the 1930s:

• In the 1930s, the awakening of peasants was influenced by the Great Depression in industrialized countries and the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM), which took the form of no-rent and no-revenue protests in various areas.
• During the CDM, there were no-revenue campaigns in Uttar Pradesh, protests against Chowkidari Tax in Bihar and Bengal, no-tax campaigns in Surat and Kheda, Forest Satyagrahas defying forest laws in Maharashtra, Bihar, Central Provinces.
• After the active phase of the CDM declined in 1932, new political entrants sought outlets for their energies, leading to the organization of peasants.
• The CDM attracted leftist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1934, the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was formed, boosting the consolidation of Left forces.
• The CSP allowed Communists to work openly and legally, spurring the formation of an all-India body to coordinate the kisan movement, led by figures like N.G. Ranga.
• This effort culminated in the establishment of the All-India Kisan Congress in April 1936, later renamed the All India Kisan Conference, with its first session attended by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• The formation of Congress ministries in 1937 marked a new phase for peasant movements, characterized by increased civil liberties and various agrarian relief legislations.

The All India Kisan Sabha

Formation and Growth of the Kisan Sabha Movement:

• Started in Bihar by Sahajanand Saraswati with the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) to address peasant grievances against zamindari attacks on occupancy rights.
• Spread across India with increased peasant unrest.
• 1934: Formation of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) facilitated temporary collaboration between Communists and the Indian National Congress.
• 1935: Peasant leaders N. G. Ranga and E. M. S. Namboodiripad proposed an all-India farmers' body.
• 1936: Formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress with Swami Sahjanand Saraswati as president and N. G. Ranga as general secretary.
• Key figures involved: Ranga, Namboodiripad, Karyanand Sharma, Yamuna Karjee, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Bankim Mukerji.

Kisan Manifesto and Influence on Congress:

• A Kisan manifesto was issued, a periodical under Indulal Yagnik was started.
• The Kisan Manifesto was finalized at the All-India Kisan Committee session in Bombay and presented to the Congress Working Committee for incorporation into its 1937 election manifesto.
• At Faizpur, along with the Congress session, the second session of the All India Kisan Congress was held, influencing the Congress agrarian program.
• The Kisan Manifesto led to demands for land revenue reduction, debt moratorium, abolition of feudal levies, security of tenure for tenants, wages for agricultural laborers, recognition of peasant unions.

Under Congress Ministries (1937-39):

• This period marked the peak of peasant movements and activities under Congress provincial rule.
• Formation of Congress Ministries in most provinces in 1937 brought a sense of civil liberties and hope for pro-people measures.
• Various agrarian legislation was introduced, including debt relief and security of tenure, mobilizing peasants for support or changes in legislation.
• Kisan conferences or meetings at different levels became the main form of mobilization to air peasant demands.
• In October 1937,AIKS adopted the red flag as its banner.
• AIKS leaders became more

  distant from Congress and faced confrontations with Congress governments, especially in Bihar and the United Province.

Election of 1937 and Subsequent Developments:

• In the 1937 elections, the socialists and right-wing leaders united, leading to a significant Congress victory.
• Post-election,right-wing leaders attempted to stall zamindari reform.
• On the issue of Bakasht land, where permanent tenancies were converted into short-term tenancies, conservative Congress leaders renegotiated their alignment with landlords.
• When Congress's proposed tenancy legislation was weakened due to landlord pressure, peasants led by the Kisan Sabha staged a militant movement in 1938-39 for the restoration of Bakasht land.
• During the 1938 annual conference, the organization criticized Gandhi's idea of class collaboration and set the agrarian revolution as its main goal.
• The frightened zamindars(landowners) urged the Congress government to use its coercive power. The Bihar Congress attempted to distance itself from the Kisan Sabha(Farmers' Union).
• In Uttar Pradesh (UP), the Kisan Sabha became disillusioned with the Congress ministry, which weakened the 1938 tenancy legislation that aimed to cut rents by half. Kisan Sabha leaders like Narendra Dev and Mohanlal Gautam organized peasant demonstrations.
• In Orissa, Kisan leaders were frustrated when the Congress ministry allowed pro-landlord changes to the proposed tenancy legislation. Even the weakened legislation was stalled by the governor until a massive Kisan Day Rally on September 1, 1938.
• At the Haripura Session of Congress in February 1938, a resolution was passed forbidding Congress members from joining Kisan Sabhas, but its enforcement was left to provincial bodies.
• By May 1942, the Communist Party of India, legalized by the government in July 1942, had taken over the AIKS(All India Kisan Sabha) across India, including Bengal where its membership grew significantly.
• The AIKS adopted the Communist Party's line of People's War and distanced itself from the Quit India Movement that began in August 1942.
• This shift caused a loss of popular support, with many members defying party orders to join the movement.
• Prominent figures like Ranga, Indulal Yagnik and Saraswati left the organization, which struggled to connect with peasants without the pro-British and pro-war stance, increasingly adopted a pro-nationalist agenda.

Peasant Activity in Provinces

Kerala:

• In the Malabar region, the peasants were mobilised mainly by the Congress Socialist Party activists. Many “Karshak Sanghams” (peasants’ organisations) came into existence.
• The main demands, around which movement cohered, were for the abolition of feudal levies or akramapirivukal, renewal fees or the practice of policceluthu, advance rent, the stopping of eviction of tenants by landlords on the ground of personal cultivation. Peasants also demanded a reduction in the tax, rent, debt burden, the use of proper measures by landlords when measuring the grain rent, an end to the corrupt practices of the landlords’ managers.
• The main forms of mobilization and agitation were the formation of village units of the Karshaka Sanghams, conferences and meetings. But a form that became very popular and effective was the marching of jathas or large groups of peasants to the houses of big jenmies or landlords, placing the demands before them and securing immediate redressal. The main demand of these jathas was for the abolition of feudal levies such as vasi, nuri, etc.
• One significant campaign by the peasants was in 1938 for the amendment of the Malabar Tenancy Act, 1929. The 6th of November, 1938 was observed as the Malabar Tenancy Act Amendment Day and meetings all over the district passed a uniform resolution pressing the demand.

Andhra:

• This region had already witnessed a decline in the prestige of Zamindars after their defeat by Congressmen in elections of 1937. Anti-zamindar movements were going on in some places. Many provincial ryot associations were active. The Andhra provincial Ryots Association and the Andhra Zamin Ryot Association already had a long history of successful struggle against the Government and Zamindars.
• An CSP activist, N.G. Ranga had set up, in 1933, the India Peasants’ Institute in his home village in Guntur district. He organised many marches of peasants in 1933-34 and under his stewardship at the Ellore Zamindari Ryots Conference in 1933, the demand of abolition of Zamindari was raised.
• In 1935, Ranga and EMS Namboodripad tried to spread the peasant movement to other linguistic regions of Madras Presidency and organised a South Indian Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labour and intiated a discussion for an all India Peasant body. After 1936, the Congress socialists started organising the peasants. At many places, the summer schools of economics and politics were held and addressed by leaders like P.C. Joshi,Ajoy Ghosh and R.D. Bhardwaj.
• In 1938, the Provincial Kisan Conference organized, for the first time, a march on a massive scale — a long march in which over 2000 kisans marched a distance of over 1,500 miles, starting from Itchapur in the north, covering nine districts and walking for a total of 130 days en route, they held hundreds of meetings attended by lakhs of peasants and collected over 1,100 petitions; these were then presented to the provincial legislature in Madras on 27 March 1938. One of their main demands was for debt relief, this was incorporated in the legislation passed by the Congress Ministry and was widely appreciated in Andhra. In response to the peasants’ demands the Ministry had appointed a Zamindari Enquiry Committee, but the legislation based on its recommendations could not be passed before the Congress Ministries resigned.
• Another notable feature of the movement in Andhra was the organization of Summer Schools of Economics and Politics for peasant activists.
• The celebration of various kisan and other ‘days,’ as well as the popularization of peasant songs, was another form of mobilization.

Bihar:

• The Kisan Sabha movement in Bihar was initiated by Sahjan and Saraswati in 1929, who established the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS). He was joined by leaders like Karyanand Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul Sankritayan, Panchanan Sharma, Jamun Karjiti.
• The BPKS employed various methods such as meetings, conferences, rallies, mass demonstrations to spread its message, including a significant demonstration of one lakh peasants in Patna in 1938.
• Initially, the BPKS aimed to promote class harmony between landlords and tenants to support the national movement. However, under Socialist influence, it shifted its focus to the abolition of Zamindari by 1935.
• In 1935, the Provincial Kisan Conference adopted the Zamindari abolition slogan along with other demands like stopping illegal levies, preventing evictions, returning bakasht lands.
• The BPKS had a disagreement with the Congress over the bakasht land issue, leading to a decline in the movement by August 1939 due to concessions, legislation, the arrest of about 600 activists. The movement saw a resurgence in 1945 and persisted until the abolition of zamindari.

Punjab:

• Earlier peasant mobilization in Punjab was organized by groups like the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha,Kirti Kisan Party,Congress, Akalis. The Punjab Kisan Committee, formed in 1937, provided new direction and cohesion to Congress and Akali activists.
• The mobilization pattern involved kisan workers touring villages to enroll Kisan Sabha and Congress members, organizing meetings, mobilizing people for various conferences. The main demands were related to tax reduction and a moratorium on debts.
• The movement targeted landlords of western Punjab, focusing on issues like land revenue resettlement in Amritsar and Lahore, water rate increases in canal colonies. Peasants went on strikes and achieved concessions.
• Peasant activity was concentrated in Jullundur, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, Lyallpur, Shekhupura. However, Muslim tenants in west Punjab and Hindu peasants in southeastern Punjab (now Haryana) remained largely unaffected.
• In the princely states of Punjab, peasant discontent was notable, especially in Patiala, where tenants demanded the restoration of land seized by a landlord-official combine through deceit and intimidation. Led by Left leaders like Bhagwan Singh Longowalia,Jagir Singh Joga, later Teja Singh Swatantar, the struggle continued until 1953, when legislation was passed to enable tenants to become landowners.

Peasant Activity in Different Parts of India

• Bengal: Under the leadership of Bankim Mukherjee, peasants in Burdwan protested against the increase in canal tax on the Damodar Canal and achieved significant concessions. In 1938, farmers in 24 Parganas marched to Calcutta to press their demands.
• Assam (Surma Valley): A no-rent struggle lasted for six months against zamindari oppression. Karuna Sindhu led a major campaign to amend the tenancy law.
• Orissa: The Utkal Provincial Kisan Sabha, organized by Malati Chowdhary and others in 1935, succeeded in getting the kisan manifesto accepted by the Provincial Congress as part of its election manifesto. The subsequent ministry introduced significant agrarian reforms. At its first conference, the Utkal Kisan Sabha passed a resolution for the abolition of Zamindari.
• NWFP (North-West Frontier Province): Kisans in the Ghalla Dhir state protested against evictions and feudal exactions by their Nawab.
• Gujarat: The main demand was the abolition of the Hali system (bonded labor), significant success was achieved in this regard.
• Central Provinces: The Central Province Kisan Sabha led a march to Nagpur, demanding the abolition of the malguzari system, concessions in taxes, a moratorium on debts.

During the War:

• The growing movement of peasants was interrupted by the start of World War II. This led to the resignation of Congress Ministries and harsh crackdowns on left-wing and kisan Sabha leaders and workers due to their strong anti-war position.
• When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, it caused rifts within the kisan Sabha between Communist and non-Communist members. These tensions peaked during the Quit India Movement. The Congress Socialist members were very active in this movement, while the Communist Party of India (CPI), following its pro-war stance, instructed its members to stay away. Although some local workers joined the Quit India Movement, the CPI's position deepened the divide within the kisan Sabha, leading to a split in 1943. During this time, three prominent leaders of the All India Kisan Sabha—N.G. Ranga, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Indulal Yagnik—left the organization.
• Despite these challenges, the kisan Sabha played a crucial role during the war years in various relief efforts, such as during the Bengal Famine of 1943. It helped alleviate the harshness of shortages of essential goods and rationing. The organization continued its work despite being hampered by its unpopular pro-war stance, which distanced it from many segments of the peasantry.

Post-War Phase:

• Many struggles that had been left off in 1939 were renewed. The demand for zamindari abolition was pressed with a greater sense of urgency.
• The peasants of Punnapra-Vayalar in Travancore fought bloody battles with the administration.

Tebhaga Movement:

• The Tebhaga Movement was a campaign started in Bengal by the Kisan Sabha during 1946-1947.
• Sharecropping peasants were required to give half of their harvest to the landowners.
• The central demand of the Tebhaga movement was to reduce this share to one third.
• In September 1946, the Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha called for the implementation of the Floud Commission's recommendations.
• The Floud Commission suggested a share of one third for the bargardars instead of the one-half share.
• The bargardars worked on land rented from the jotedars.
• Communist activists, including urban student groups, organized the bargardars in the countryside.
• The main slogan was "nij khamare dhan tolo," meaning sharecroppers should take the paddy to their own threshing floor.
• North Bengal, especially among the Rajbanshis, was the epicenter of the movement.
• Significant participation came from Muslims as well.
• In response to the protests, the Muslim League ministry introduced the Bargadari Bill.
• The Bargadari Bill aimed to limit the landlord's share to one third.
• This law, however, was not fully enforced.
• The movement gradually weakened due to the Muslim League ministry's promise of the Bargadari Bill.
• Increased repression and the Hindu Mahasabha's push for a separate Bengal also contributed to the weakening.
• Renewed riots in Calcutta reduced urban support for the movement.
• The Muslim League Ministry did not pursue the bill in the Assembly.
• It was only in 1950 that the Congress Ministry passed a Bargadari Bill reflecting the movement's demands.

Telangana Movement:

• This was the largest peasant guerrilla war in modern Indian history.
• The princely state of Hyderabad was ruled by the Asaf Jahi Nizams.
• The region faced a mix of religious and linguistic domination.
• A small Urdu-speaking Muslim elite governed over predominantly Hindu-Telugu, Marathi, Kannada-speaking populations.
• There was a lack of political and civil liberties in the region.
• The population suffered severe exploitation by deshmukhs, jagirdars, doras (landlords).
• Landlords imposed forced labor (vethi) and illegal taxes.
• During the conflict, communist-led guerrillas established a strong presence in Telangana villages.
• The movement was supported by the Andhra Mahasabha.
• Guerrillas led local struggles against wartime exactions, rationing abuses, high rents, vethi.
• The uprising began in July 1946 after a deshmukh's thug killed a village militant.
• The unrest quickly spread to Warrangal and Khammam.
• Peasants formed village sanghams and launched attacks with lathis, stone slings, chilli powder.
• They faced harsh repression in return.
• The movement peaked between August 1947 and September 1948.
• During this time, peasants defeated the Razaqars, the Nizam's stormtroopers.
• The movement subsided after Indian security forces took control of Hyderabad.

Positive Achievements of the Telangana Movement:

• In guerrilla-controlled villages, practices like vethi and forced labor were eradicated.
• Agricultural wages saw an increase.
• Illegally appropriated lands were returned to their rightful owners.
• Initiatives were launched to establish land ceilings and redistribute land.
• Efforts were made to enhance irrigation and combat cholera.
• There was a noticeable improvement in the status of women.
• The oppressive feudal regime of India’s largest princely state was challenged, paving the way for the linguistic formation of Andhra Pradesh and fulfilling another goal of the regional national movement.

Assessment of Peasant Movements:

• Peasant struggles primarily aimed at alleviating the most oppressive aspects of the agrarian structure rather than its complete overthrow.
• These movements weakened the power of the landed classes and set the stage for future structural changes.
• Even when immediate successes were not achieved, these movements created an environment conducive to post-Independence agrarian reforms.
• The abolition of Zamindari was influenced by the popular demand propagated by the kisan sabha.
• The methods of struggle and mobilization employed by peasant movements across different regions were similar in nature and demands.
• Violent confrontations were rare during these movements.
• The peasant movement maintained a vital and integral relationship with the national movement.
• The kisan movement was ideologically aligned with nationalism, promoting organization along class lines while advocating for national freedom.
• Many kisan activists were involved in the Congress and Kisan Sabha simultaneously.
• In certain areas like Bihar, significant differences arose between sections of Congress and the kisan sabha.
• Before 1942, these differences were generally managed, with shared common ground.
• The kisan movement realized that diverging too much from the national movement could weaken its mass base.
• Peasant demands included reductions in taxes, abolition of illegal cesses, and debt reduction.
• With few exceptions like Andhra and Gujarat, the demands of agricultural laborers were not significantly incorporated into the movement.
• These movements diminished the power of the landed class, contributing to the transformation of the agrarian structure.
• Rooted in the ideology of nationalism, these movements exhibited similar characteristics across diverse regions.