Gupta Period: Literature, Scientific literature | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Sanskrit Language and Literature in the Gupta Period

Introduction

• The Gupta period is often considered a golden age for Sanskrit language and literature.
• During this time, Sanskrit evolved into its classical form, marked by a shift from simple to ornate styles. The emphasis was more on poetry than prose, with the production of commentaries becoming prominent.

Epics and Puranas

• The Puranas, which existed earlier as bardic literature, were compiled and polished during the Gupta age.
• Vishnudharmottara Purana: A section of this Purana provides insights into ancient painting techniques, detailing fresco surface preparation and color usage.
• The two major epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were nearly finalized by the 4th century A.D. Although compiled by the Brahmanas, these texts reflect the Kshatriya tradition and are rich in myths and legends.
• While they offer glimpses of social changes, they are not reliable for political history.

Smriti Literature

• The period also witnessed the compilation of various Smritis or law-books, including:
• Yajnavalkya Smriti
• Narada Smriti
• Katyayana Smriti
• Brihaspati Smriti
• The tradition of writing commentaries on these Smritis began after the Gupta period.

Secular Literature

• The Gupta era is notable for the rise of secular literature.
• Ashvaghosha: The earliest known writer to use Sanskrit for non-religious works.
• Prose usage in Sanskrit literature saw a rise during this time, with the Allahabad prashasti exemplifying a mixed prose and verse style known as champu kavya.
• The transition from Prakrit to Sanskrit in royal inscriptions was also completed during this phase.
• According to the Natyashastra, high-status characters like kings and ministers spoke in Sanskrit, while lower-status characters, including women and servants, typically spoke in Prakrit. This convention was reflected in Sanskrit dramas.

Principles of Poetics and Dramaturgy

• Apart from kavya literature, various works outlined the principles of poetics (kavyakriyakalpa) and dramaturgy (natyashastra), with substantial overlap between the two subjects.
• Bhamaha's Kavyalankara
• Dandin's Kavyadarsha
• These treatises primarily focus on poetics, emphasizing that the main purpose of kavya is to evoke delight or joy.
• It is likely that there was interaction between writers (kavis) and theorists during this period.
• Natyashastra: The oldest known work on drama, detailing various aspects of dramatic performances.
• Besides exclusive performances for elite audiences, including kings and affluent patrons, kavya likely reached its widest audience through dramas presented during popular festivals.
• Plays were staged in royal palaces, with some kings being skilled kavis themselves.
• Nagarakas were expected to organize and join social gatherings (goshthis) and festivals (samajas) that featured dramas.
• Most kavis appeared to be Brahmanas.
• Dramas from the Gupta period share two key characteristics:
• They are predominantly comedies, with no tragedies found.
• Characters from different social classes did not share the same language; women and shudras spoke in Prakrit, while the higher classes used Sanskrit.

Natyashastra

• The Natyashastra is a foundational text on drama, suggesting that natya was created as a form of entertainment (kridaniyaka) to provide pleasure and distract people from the challenges and sufferings of daily life.
• According to the text, the Natyashastra was transmitted by Brahma to a sage named Bharata as a fifth Veda, aiming to alleviate evil passions through a medium accessible to all, unlike the four Vedas.
• The Natyashastra is a comprehensive work that represents the codification and compilation of earlier materials, which may have initially existed as oral traditions and later as prose sutras, with subsequent additions of verses and commentaries.
• This text covers all facets of dramatic performances, including:
• Abhinaya: The methods by which actors convey a dramatic experience to the audience through speech, expressions, body movements, props, costumes, and ornaments.
• Theatre construction, types of plays, plot and structure of plays, characters, dialogues, ideal performance times, and the desired qualities of actors and audiences
• Notably, elaborate props and a drop curtain are not mentioned. Song and dance were integral to plays, and there are allusions to street plays.
• Rasa: A key concept in the Natyashastra, referring to the aesthetic experience derived from the interplay of causes and effects of emotions, leading to pleasure and contentment.

The text identifies eight rasas linked with eight fundamental emotions:

• Shringara rasa
• Hasya rasa
• Karuna rasa
• Raudra rasa
• Vira rasa
• Bhayanaka rasa
• Bhibhatsa rasa
• Adbhuta rasa
• Scenes deemed inappropriate for stage presentation include death, eating, fighting, kissing, and bathing.
• Unlike Greek drama, Sanskrit drama lacks a tradition of tragedy. Although sorrow and suffering may be prevalent throughout the play, it typically concludes on a positive note.

Kalidasa

• Renowned as the preeminent Sanskrit poet of the era, Kalidasa is believed to have resided in the court of Chandragupta II.
• His plays and poems are regarded as masterpieces of Sanskrit literature.
• Dramas
• Abhijnanashakuntalam: Depicts the love story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala, whose son Bharata becomes a renowned ruler.
• Malavikagnimitra
• Vikramorvashiya
• Poems
• Raghuvamsha
• Kumarasambhava: Chronicles the union of Shiva and Parvati and the birth of their son Kartikeya.
• Meghaduta
• Ritusamhara
• Kalidasa is celebrated for his exquisite poetic depictions of love, and his works occasionally exhibit humor.
• His style exemplifies the Vaidarbhi style, characteristic of the Vidarbha region.
• Banabhatta and Dandin commend the sweetness (madhurya) of his writing.
• However, Kalidasa also faced criticism from ancient reviewers.
• For instance, Mammata, in his Kavyaprakasha, deems certain parts of the Kumarasambhava, where Kalidasa describes the intimate moments between Shiva and Parvati, as inappropriate.

Bhasa

• Bhasa was a significant playwright in the early Gupta period, credited with authoring thirteen plays.
• Although he wrote in Sanskrit, his dramas also incorporated a considerable amount of Prakrit.
• Works
• Madhyamavyayoga
• DutaGhatotkacha
• Dutavakya
• Balacharita
• Charudatta
• He is known for a drama titled Dradiracharudatta, which was later adapted into the Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart by Shudraka.
• This play revolves around the romantic entanglement of a poor brahmana trader and a beautiful courtesan and is regarded as one of the finest examples of ancient drama.
• In his plays, Bhasa employs the term yavanika for the curtain, indicating possible Greek influence.

Shudraka

• Shudraka is celebrated for his drama Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart.

Vishakadatta

• Vishakadatta is the author of the Mudrarakshasa, which narrates the clever schemes of Chanakya.
• Another drama by him, the Devichandraguptam, survives only in fragments.

Mentha

• Mentha is recognized as a prominent dramatist of the era through references and quotations in later writings by critics and authors.

Dandin

• Dandin is known for his works Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita.
• Residing in Kanchi, he is best remembered for Dasakumarcharita“The Tale of the Ten Princes,” which narrates the adventures of ten princes.
• Dasakumarcharita was first translated in 1927 as Hindoo Tales and The Adventures of the Ten Princes.

Philosophical Texts

• Philosophical texts from this period engage in debates and counter the positions of rival schools, particularly Buddhism and Jainism.
• New sections were added to the Brahmasutras, Yogasutras, and Nyayasutras during this time.
• Samkhya-karika: Authored by Ishvarakrishna, provides a systematic account of Samkhya philosophy, likely dating back to the 4th or 5th century.
• Vyasa's commentary on Patanjali's Yogasutra: Possibly from this period.
• Nyaya Sutra Bhashya: Written by Vatsyayana, the first commentary on Gautama's Nyaya Sutras.
• Kamasutra: A treatise on human sexual behavior, part of the Kamashastra.
• Padarthadharmasangraha: A commentary on the Vaisheshika Sutra by Prashastapada, likely from the 5th century.
• Mimamsa scholars from this period include Prabhakara and Kumarila Bhatta, who lived in the 7th century.

Panchatantra

• A storybook from this era, likely composed to teach young princes political science and practical conduct.
• The Panchatantra serves as a nidarshana—a work illustrating through examples what should and should not be done.
• Its stories are presented as narrated by a sage named Vishnusharman to three princes named ‘shakti,’ suggesting a composition in the Vakataka empire.
• The text is divided into five sections covering topics such as alliance splitting, alliance forming, waging war, outsmarting a fool, and the outcomes of thoughtless actions.
• Many stories feature animals and are amusing, satirical tales.
• Its style is elegant prose, interspersed with verses.

Sanskrit Grammar in the Gupta Period

During the Gupta period, significant advancements were made in the field of Sanskrit grammar, drawing inspiration from the works of ancient scholars such as Panini and Patanjali.

Panini and Patanjali:

• Panini: His work, the Ashtadhyayi, laid the foundational rules for Sanskrit grammar.
• Patanjali: A commentator on Panini, his Mahabhashya provided critical insights and explanations of Panini's rules.

Bhartrihari (5th Century):

• Commentary on Mahabhashya: Bhartrihari wrote a detailed commentary on Patanjali's Mahabhashya, further elaborating on the intricacies of Sanskrit grammar.
• Vakyapadiya: Bhartrihari's own work, the Vakyapadiya, explored the philosophy of language. It delved into the concepts of sentence and word formation in Sanskrit, contributing to the understanding of linguistic structure.

Bhatti’s Ravanavadha (7th Century):

• Bhatti's Ravanavadha is a narrative poem that not only tells the story of Rama's life but also illustrates the rules of Sanskrit grammar. Through this literary work, grammatical principles are woven into the fabric of the narrative, providing a practical example of language usage.

Amarakosha by Amarasimha:

• Amarasimha was a prominent figure in the court of Chandragupta II, and his work, the Amarakosha, served as a lexicon for learning Sanskrit. This text was instrumental in helping learners acquire vocabulary and understand the nuances of the language.

Chandravyakaranam by Chandragomia:

• Chandragomia, a Buddhist scholar from Bengal, composed the Chandravyakaranam, a book on grammar. This work gained immense popularity in regions such as Kashmir, Nepal, and Tibet, and eventually made its way to Sri Lanka. The Chandravyakaranam played a significant role in disseminating grammatical knowledge and contributing to the understanding of Sanskrit in various cultural contexts.

Buddhist and Jaina Literature

• During the Gupta period, significant contributions were made to Buddhist and Jaina literature in Sanskrit.
• Notable Buddhist scholars from this era include Arya Deva, Arya Asanga, and Vasubandhu. Many of their works are written in prose with verse passages in mixed Sanskrit.
• Vasubandhu is credited with writing the first regular Buddhist work on logic. His disciple,Dignaga, also authored numerous important works.
• Jaina versions of epics and Puranas were created to promote Jaina doctrines. For instance,Vimala produced a Jaina version of the Ramayana.
• Siddhasena Divakara is recognized for laying the groundwork of logic among the Jains.

Prakrit Language and Literature:

• The Gupta age witnessed the emergence of various Prakrit forms, including Suraseni, spoken in Mathura and its surrounding areas, and Ardhamagadhi, prevalent in regions like Oudh and Bundelkhand.
• Magadhi was spoken in Bihar, while Maharashtri was used in Berar.

Inscriptions:

• The Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, crafted by his court poet Harisena, showcases distinctive features of Sanskrit Kavya.
• The Mandasor inscription by Vatsabhatti also reflects these characteristics.
• Other notable inscriptions include the Junagadh inscription, the Mehrauli iron pillars inscription, and the Mandasor inscription of Yasovarman by Vasula, all of which exhibit considerable literary merit.

Scientific Literature in Astronomy

• The earliest evidence of ancient Indian astronomical knowledge is found in the Vedanga texts on jyotisha, or astrology, which primarily focused on determining the dates for sacrificial rituals.

Greek Influence:

• The Sanskrit names of the zodiac signs have Greek origins. Greek influence is also evident in the sequence of planets reflected in the names of the seven days of the week in Indian texts.
• A Sanskrit text called the Yavanajataka shows the transmission of Hellenistic astronomical ideas into India.
• However, Indian astronomers made significant breakthroughs independently.

Varahamihira's Panchasiddhantika:

• Varahamihira's Panchasiddhantika, written in the 6th century, summarizes earlier astronomical works and ideas, attributing their authorship to divine or semi-divine beings.

Aryabhata I

• Aryabhata I, an Indian astronomer and mathematician from 476 to 550 CE, is recognized as the earliest known historical astronomer in India.

Works

• Aryabhata I authored two significant works:
• Aryabhatiya: This text covers various topics in astronomy and mathematics. The mathematical section includes arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry, and spherical trigonometry. It also contains advanced concepts such as continued fractions, quadratic equations, sums-of-power series, and a table of sines.
• Aryabhata-siddhanta: Although this work on astronomical computations is now lost, it is known through the writings of contemporaries like Varahamihira and later mathematicians, including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I.

Residence

• Aryabhata is believed to have been a native of the Ashmaka country, located around the Godavari River. The 7th-century mathematician Bhaskara I referred to the Aryabhatiya as the Ashmakatantra, and the followers of Aryabhata as Ashmakiyas.
• A statement in Aryabhata's work suggests that he lived in Kusumapura, identified as Pataliputra(modern Patna). Both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, along with Bhaskara I, recognize Kusumapura as Paṭaliputra.

Contributions

• Aryabhata was aware of the ideas and methods of his predecessors but took an independent approach. In the Aryabhatiya, he expresses his unique perspective by stating, “I dived deep into the ocean of astronomical theories, both true and false, and rescued the precious sunken jewel of true knowledge using the boat of my own intellect.”
• Aryabhata proposed an earth-centric view of the universe, suggesting that planets moved around the Earth in circular epicycles.

Scientific Explanation of Eclipses

• Aryabhata was the first astronomer to provide a scientific explanation for eclipses. He established that eclipses were caused by the moon positioning itself between the Earth and the sun, rather than by the demons Rahu and Ketu, as was commonly believed.
• He also developed methods to determine which part of the moon would be obscured during an eclipse.

Other Achievements

• Aryabhata was the first to discover that the Earth rotates on its axis. He made significant contributions to the calculation of sine functions and their application in astronomy.
• He formulated equations for calculating the orbits of planets and provided an extremely accurate estimate of the length of a year, calculated as 365.2586805 days.
• In the Aryabhatiya, he mentions the number of rotations of the Earth in a yuga (an ancient Indian period of time). He calculated the sidereal rotation of the Earth, referencing the fixed stars, as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds, a value very close to the modern measurement of 23:56:4.091.
• Aryabhata also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflecting sunlight.

Influence

• Aryabhata's work had a profound influence on the Indian astronomical tradition and extended to neighboring cultures through translations.
• Some of his results were cited by Al-Khwarizmi, and in the 10th century, Al-Biruni noted that Aryabhata's followers believed in the Earth's rotation on its axis.
• The calendric calculations devised by Aryabhata and his followers have been continuously used in India for practical purposes, such as fixing the Panchangam (Hindu calendar). In the Islamic world, these calculations formed the basis of the Jalali calendar, introduced in 1073 CE by a group of astronomers. Variants of this calendar are still in use today in Iran and Afghanistan.

Varahamihira

• Varahamihira, a prominent figure in the 6th century, was an astrologer, astronomer, and mathematician born in Avanti(modern-day Ujjain) towards the end of the fifth century. He is often regarded as one of the Navaratnas(nine gems) in the court of the legendary ruler Yashodharman Vikramaditya of Malwa.

Panchasiddhantika

• Varahamihira's work,Panchasiddhantika, focuses on five schools of astronomy:
• Surya Siddhanta
• Romaka Siddhanta: Attributed to Srishena, influenced by Greek and Roman ideas.
• Paulisa Siddhanta: Composed by Pulisa, also of Greek origin.
• Vasishtha Siddhanta: Composed by Vishnucandra, inspired by one of the stars in the Great Bear constellation.
• Paitamaha Siddhanta
• Among these, Varahamihira considered the Surya Siddhanta to be the best.
• Varahamihira appreciated the contributions of Greek astronomers but arrived at his conclusions independently, often with greater accuracy.

Astrological Works

• In addition to his astronomical pursuits, Varahamihira was also an astrologer. He made significant contributions to all three main branches of Jyotisha astrology:
• Laghu-Jataka
• Brihat Jataka
• Brihat Samhita

Brihatsamhita

• Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita is an encyclopedic work covering a wide range of topics, including:
• Techniques for sharpening swords
• Methods for determining the value of precious metals and stones
• Ways to make trees bear fruit out of season
• Criteria for distinguishing good breeds of animals
• Methods for locating water sources
• Insights into the nature and structure of temples, palaces, and houses
• Explanations of seasons and discussions on meteorological issues, such as the relationship between clouds, winds, and rainfall.

Brahmagupta

• Brahmagupta, a mathematician and astronomer active from 598 to 670 CE, made significant contributions to the fields of mathematics and astronomy through his writings.

Major Works

• Brahmagupta authored two important works:
• Brahmasphutasiddhanta: Written in 628 CE, this theoretical treatise became influential in India and was translated into Arabic, introducing Indian astronomy to the Arab world.
• Khandakhadyaka: Completed in 665 CE, this more practical text also gained prominence within India and beyond.

Brahmasputasiddhanta:

• The Brahmasputasiddhanta is notable for being the first surviving Indian text to systematically discuss astronomical instruments and methods for computing astronomical elements from their readings.
• It includes a variety of instruments such as:
• Accessories
• Astronomical instruments for measuring time and observing celestial bodies
• Timekeeping instruments that turn automatically for one day or rotate perpetually
• Brahmagupta mentions nine astronomical instruments, including:
• chakra(a circular wooden plate graduated into 360º)
• dhanus(a semicircular plate)
• turyagola(a quarter plate)
• kartari(two semicircular plates joined at different levels)

Khandakhadyaka (Meaning “Edible Bite”): The Khandakhadyaka, an astronomical treatise, comprises eight chapters covering topics like planet longitudes, diurnal rotation, lunar and solar eclipses, risings and settings, the moon's crescent, and planetary conjunctions. Written in response to Aryabhata's Ardharatrikapaksa, Khandakhadyaka was known to Al-Biruni in Sanskrit. Brahmagupta criticized the Puranic view of a flat or hollow Earth, asserting instead that Earth and heaven are spherical.

Mathematics in Ancient India