Revolts against Aurangzeb | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

During his reign, Aurangzeb faced several revolts, including:

• Marathas in the Deccan
• Jats and Rajputs in north India
• Afghans and Sikhs in the north-west

Some of these issues were not new and had been encountered by Aurangzeb's predecessors. However, they took on a different character during his rule.
Major Revolts against Aurangzeb:(While this is not the core focus of the question, I have provided detailed information for the sake of completeness. For this question, you only need to mention these revolts briefly.)

Jats

• The first group to clash with the Mughal Empire was the Jats of the Agra-Delhi region, living on both sides of the Yamuna River.
• The Jats were primarily peasant cultivators, with only a few being zamindars(landlords). They had a strong sense of brotherhood and justice, which often led them into conflict with the Mughals.
• Conflicts with the Jats occurred during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan over issues related to the collection of land revenue.
• Since all imperial roads to the Deccan and western seaports passed through Jat territory, the Mughals had to take significant action against Jat rebellions.

Jat Rebellions:

• In 1669, under the leadership of local zamindar Gokla, the Jats of Mathura rebelled, spreading quickly among local peasants. This rebellion forced Aurangzeb to take personal action, resulting in the defeat of the Jats and the capture and execution of Gokla.
• Despite being primarily a peasant uprising, religion played a minor role in the struggle. However, after the defeat of the Jats, the temple of Bir Singh Deo Bundela in Mathura was destroyed.
• In 1685, another rebellion led by Rajaram occurred. This time, the Jats were more organized, employing guerrilla warfare and plundering tactics.
• The rebellion persisted until 1691, when Rajaram and his successor Churaman were forced to surrender. Despite this, unrest among Jat peasants continued, making the Delhi-Agra road unsafe for travelers.
• During the 18th century, taking advantage of Mughal civil wars and weaknesses, Churaman established a separate Jat principality and ousted the Rajput zamindars.

Satnami

• In 1672, a violent confrontation occurred at Narnaul, near Mathura, between the peasants and the Mughal forces, particularly involving a religious group known as the Satnamis.

Origins of the Satnami Sect:

• The Satnamis were originally a militant sect of Hindu worshippers, established by Saint Birbhan in 1657 at Narnaul, Haryana.
• The core practice of this sect involved chanting and meditating on the true names of God, referred to as Sat-Nam.
• Historians classify the Satnamis as a monotheistic sect distinct from both Hinduism and Islam. Their teachings emphasized moral conduct over rituals and dogma.

Societal Composition and Beliefs:

• The Satnami sect is believed to be an offshoot of the Ravidasi tradition, drawing its members primarily from the lower strata of society, including peasants,artisans, and various low-caste groups such as goldsmiths,carpenters,sweepers, and tanners.
• The sect appealed to the lower classes due to its sympathy for the poor and hostility towards authority and wealth.

Triggering of the Revolt:

• The revolt was sparked when a Mughal soldier killed a Satnami, leading to retaliation by the Satnamis. While this incident was the immediate trigger, the underlying causes related to the rise of the Satnami sect.
• The entrenched caste system of the time forced marginalized groups to join the sect, which protested against the high taxation policies. The growth of the Satnami sect was perceived as a threat by the Mughal supporters, primarily the upper castes.

Escalation and Rebellion:

• The conflict escalated into an open rebellion, with the Satnamis plundering numerous villages, defeating local authorities, and capturing towns like Narnaul and Bairat.
• They even established their own administration and marched towards Shahjahanabad(old Delhi), equipped with European-designed muskets.

Afghan Conflicts during Mughal Rule:

• The conflicts with the Afghans, residing in the mountainous regions, were a recurring challenge for most Mughal Emperors.
• Akbar fought against the Afghans, suffering personal losses, including the death of his loyal noble Raja Birbal.
• The Afghan conflicts were driven by economic,political, and religious factors.
• With scarce means of livelihood in the mountains, Afghans often resorted to raiding caravans or enlisting in the Mughal armies. However, their fierce desire for freedom made long-term service in the Mughal forces challenging.

Efforts to Suppress Afghan Resistance:

• Aurangzeb deputed Chief Bakhshi Amir Khan to clear the Khyber Pass and quell the Afghan uprisings. Following intense battles, Afghan resistance was eventually subdued.
• In 1672, a significant Afghan uprising occurred under Akmal Khan, who proclaimed himself king and issued coins in his name.
• Near the Khyber Pass, the Afghans faced a severe defeat, although Khan managed to escape.

Continued Afghan Resistance and Mughal Responses:

• In 1674,Shujaat Khan, a Mughal noble, faced a catastrophic defeat in the Khyber region. He was later rescued by a group of Rathors sent by Jaswant Singh.
• In mid-1674,Aurangzeb personally went to Peshawar and remained there until the end of 1675. Through a combination of force and diplomacy, the unified Afghan front was dismantled, and peace was gradually restored.

Sikhs

• Guru Tegh Bahadur, along with his five followers, was arrested by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1675.
• They were brought to Delhi, where various accusations were made against the Guru.
• Despite being asked to recant his faith, Guru Tegh Bahadur refused and was subsequently executed.

Reasons Behind Aurangzeb's Actions:

• Different interpretations exist regarding Aurangzeb's motives for executing Guru Tegh Bahadur.
• Some sources suggest that the Guru sacrificed his life in defense of the Hindu faith.
• Others argue that the execution was primarily a matter of law and order.
• Some historians believe Aurangzeb was provoked by the Guru's attempts to convert Muslims to Sikhism and his protests against religious persecution in Kashmir.

Religious Tensions during Aurangzeb's Reign:

• Aurangzeb's emphasis on sharia law and the destruction of temples in places like Mathura and Varanasi contributed to heightened religious tensions.
• His actions were seen as punishments for local rebellions and complaints from qazis about Muslim teachings.
• In this charged atmosphere, any conflict with a prominent religious leader like Guru Tegh Bahadur was bound to have significant repercussions.

The Rise of the Sikh Military Brotherhood:

• Aurangzeb's execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur was seen as unjust and narrow-minded.
• This event forced the Sikhs to retreat to the Punjab hills and gradually transformed the Sikh movement into a military brotherhood.
• Guru Gobind Singh played a crucial role in this transformation by founding the Khalsa, a military brotherhood, in 1699.

Guru Gobind Singh's Conflicts:

• By the late 17th century, Guru Gobind Singh had become a powerful figure.
• He fought and won a series of wars against local Hindu hill rajas.
• In 1704, a significant conflict arose between the Guru and the hill rajas when a coalition of hill rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur.
• The hill rajas were forced to retreat, prompting the Mughal government to intervene against the Guru on behalf of the rajas.

Mughal Attacks and Sikh Resistance:

• The Mughal forces attacked Anandpur, but the Sikhs displayed remarkable bravery and repelled all assaults.
• During this period, two of Guru Gobind Singh's sons were captured, and when they refused to embrace Islam, they were beheaded at Sirhind.
• Later, the Guru lost two more sons in subsequent battles.

Rajputs

• Aurangzeb sought the support of the Maharana of Mewar, increasing his mansab from 5000/5000 to 6000/6000.
• Despite Jaswant Singh opposing Aurangzeb during the war of succession, Aurangzeb forgave him and reinstated his previous mansab.
• Jai Singh remained a close ally and confidant of Aurangzeb until his death in 1667.

Conflict with Marwar and Mewar:
After the death of Jaswant Singh, the question of succession in Marwar arose. The Mughals followed a tradition of bringing disputed successions under Mughal administration (khalisa) to maintain order before handing over power to the chosen successor.

• Another reason for this was that the Maharaj owed a significant sum of money to the state, which he had been unable to repay.
• Rani Hadi, the widow of Jaswant Singh, opposed the Mughals taking charge of Jodhpur, as it was the watan of the Rathors, but had no choice but to comply.
• The Mughals acted as conquerors, treating Marwar as hostile territory. They searched for hidden treasures belonging to Jaswant Singh and posted officials throughout Marwar, even demolishing numerous temples.

Aurangzeb's plan to divide Marwar into two branches of the family was rejected by the Rathor sardars, led by Durgadas.

• Durgadas and Ajit Singh, a minor claimant to the gaddi, sought refuge in Mewar, where Rana Raj Singh provided them with a secret hideout.
• Initially supportive of Aurangzeb, Rana Raj Singh became alienated and sent a force of 5,000 men to Jodhpur to support Rani Hadi's claim.
• He opposed Mughal interference in Rajput internal affairs, especially regarding succession, and resented Mughal attempts to detach tribute-paying states from Mewar.
• Rana Raj Singh's immediate concern was the Mughal military occupation of Marwar.

The war reached a stalemate, with the Mughals unable to penetrate Mewar's hills or counter the Rajputs' guerrilla tactics.

• Aurangzeb shifted his focus away from Mewar and negotiated a treaty with the Rana.
• The Mughals maintained control over Marwar, and intermittent warfare continued until 1698 when Ajit Singh was finally recognized as the ruler of Marwar.
• Despite this, both rulers remained dissatisfied with the situation, which persisted until Aurangzeb's death in 1707.

Rebellion by Prince Akbar

• The Rajputs became very unpopular during Aurangzeb's rule, despite his attempts to warn and advise his commanders.
• Taking advantage of this unpopularity, Aurangzeb's eldest son, Prince Akbar, decided to rebel against his father.
• In January 1681, Prince Akbar formed an alliance with Durgadas, a chief from the Rathor clan, and marched towards Ajmer, where Aurangzeb was vulnerable due to most of his best troops being occupied elsewhere.
• However, Prince Akbar hesitated in his actions, allowing Aurangzeb to create discord within Akbar's camp through deceitful letters.
• As a result, Prince Akbar was forced to flee to Maharashtra, and Aurangzeb was relieved to maintain his position.

Ahom

• In 1667, the Ahoms captured Guwahati, prompting Aurangzeb to send Raja Ramsingh of Amber to invade the Ahom territory.
• The ensuing battle, known as the Battle of Saraighat, resulted in a decisive victory for the Ahoms under the leadership of Lachit Borphukan.
• The Mughals faced further defeat in the Battle of Itakhuli in 1682, leading to the permanent loss of their hold over Kamrup.
• The Mughals' failure to control the Northeast was primarily due to their weak navy and the region's difficult terrain.

Maratha

• Shivaji started his conquests against Bijapur and other Maratha chiefs even before Aurangzeb came to power.
• Aurangzeb, wary of Shivaji's growing power near the Mughal borders, sent Shaista Khan to invade Shivaji's territory.
• Shaista Khan captured Poona and made it his base.
• In a daring move, Shivaji infiltrated Shaista Khan's camp in Poona, killing his son and injuring the Khan. This act angered Aurangzeb, leading to Shaista Khan's recall.
• Shivaji then attacked and looted Surat, a major Mughal port, returning home with vast treasures.
• Aurangzeb appointed Raja Jai Singh of Amber to deal with Shivaji. The Siege of Purandar in 1565 led to negotiations between Shivaji and Jai Singh.
• Shivaji agreed to surrender 23 out of 35 forts to the Mughals. In return, he was granted Bijapuri territory worth 9 lakhs huns a year, and he had to pay 40 lakhs huns to the Mughals in installments.
• Jai Singh created a rift between Shivaji and the Bijapuri ruler. Shivaji was excused from personal service, and a mansab of 5000 was granted to his minor son, Sambhaji, instead.
• Shivaji promised to join any Mughal campaign in the Deccan personally. However, Jai Singh's plan relied on Mughal support to Shivaji, which proved to be a critical flaw.
• The Mughal-Maratha expedition against Bijapur failed, leading to the collapse of Jai Singh's scheme.
• Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit Emperor Aurangzeb in Agra. However, the visit was disastrous for Shivaji, as Aurangzeb did not even meet him. Feeling insulted, Shivaji left angrily and refused imperial service. He was detained but escaped after a few months.
• Aurangzeb valued the alliance with Shivaji less than Jai Singh did, effectively pushing Shivaji back into a path of conquest.
• Unable to accept the loss of 23 forts and territory worth four lakhs huns a year to the Mughals without Bijapur's compensation, Shivaji resumed his conflict with the Mughals, sacking Surat again in 1670.
• Over the next four years, he reclaimed many forts, including Purandar, from the Mughals and expanded into Mughal territories.
• The Mughal focus on the Afghan uprising in the northwest benefited Shivaji.
• In 1674, Shivaji was formally crowned at Raigarh, elevating his status above other Maratha chiefs and strengthening his social position. As an independent ruler, he could now negotiate treaties with the Deccan sultans as equals, not as a rebel.
• The Marathas continued to raid Mughal territories.

After Shivaji:

• Aurangzeb arrived in the Deccan in 1681, pursuing his rebel son Prince Akbar, who had sought refuge with Sambhaji.
• Aurangzeb attempted to separate Bijapur and Golconda from the Marathas, but the Deccani states viewed the Marathas as a buffer against the Mughals and were unwilling to abandon them.
• When Aurangzeb decided to force the issue, it led to war. Both Bijapur and Golconda fell and were annexed. However, their extinction only marked the beginning of Aurangzeb's difficulties.
• In 1689, Sambhaji was captured and executed as a rebel and an infidel, a significant mistake.
• Sambhaji's execution provided the Marathas with a new cause. Without a single rallying point, Maratha leaders were free to plunder Mughal territories, disappearing at the approach of Mughal forces and regrouping later.
• Instead of destroying the Maratha state, Aurangzeb made Maratha opposition pervasive throughout the Deccan.
• Maratha resistance soon spread from the west to the east coast.
• Aurangzeb focused on annexing the rich tract of Karnataka to the empire. However, his extended line of communication became vulnerable to Maratha attacks.
• From 1690 to 1703, Aurangzeb stubbornly refused to negotiate with the Marathas. From 1700 to 1705, he aimed to capture all Maratha forts, but the Mughals suffered numerous reverses due to floods, disease, and Maratha raids.
• Weariness and discontent grew among the nobles and the army. Demoralization set in, and many Jagirdars secretly made pacts with the Marathas, agreeing to pay chauth in exchange for not disturbing their jagirs.
• In 1703, Aurangzeb began negotiations with the Marathas, offering to release Shahu, Sambhaji's son. He was also willing to grant Shahu Shivaji's swarajya and the right of sardeshmukhi over the Deccan, recognizing his special position.
• However, Aurangzeb cancelled the arrangements at the last minute, unsure of the Marathas' intentions.
• By 1706, Aurangzeb realized the futility of capturing all Maratha forts.
• Aurangzeb passed away in Aurangabad in 1707, leaving behind an empire plagued with internal issues.

Nature of these Revolts

• Rajputs: Faced a succession issue.
• Marathas and Ahoms: Struggled for local independence.
• Jats: Had conflicts rooted in their peasant-agrarian background.
• Afghans: Dealt with tribal issues, including the desire for a separate Afghan state.

Resistance to Mughal Rule:

• The Afghan uprising demonstrated that the resistance to Mughal rule and the desire for regional freedom were not limited to Hindus like the Jats and Marathas.

Sikh Movement

• Religion played a significant role in the Sikh movement, but the conflict with Guru Gobind Singh was not purely religious.
• It was partly due to local rivalries among Hindu hill rajas and Sikhs, as well as the evolution of the Sikh movement itself.
• Aurangzeb did not intend to destroy the guru; he even sought to conciliate him and invited him to meet in the Deccan.
• Guru Gobind Singh set out for the Deccan in 1706, hoping to persuade Aurangzeb to restore Anandpur to him, but Aurangzeb died before they could meet.

Influence of Economic, Social, and Regional Factors:

• Economic and social factors, along with a strong sentiment for regional independence, were significant in shaping these movements. Religion also played a role.

Hindu Reaction to Aurangzeb’s Policies:

• It has been suggested that most of these movements, except for the Afghan one, represented a Hindu response to Aurangzeb’s strict religious policies.
• In a predominantly Hindu country, any movement opposing the mainly Muslim central government could be seen as a challenge to Islam.
• The leaders of these rebellious movements could use religious slogans or symbols to expand their appeal.

Religion as Part of Societal and Political Movements:

• Religion should be viewed as an integral part of societal and political movements, rather than as the sole driving force.

Consequences of these Revolts

Role in decline of Mughals

• The Mughal Empire experienced a rapid decline following the death of Aurangzeb. The Mughal court became a battleground for factional struggles among the nobility.
• Efforts to extend Mughal control over Golconda, Bijapur, and Karnataka stretched the administration to its limits. This expansion made Mughal lines of communication vulnerable to Maratha attacks. As a result, Mughal nobles in these areas struggled to collect their dues from assigned jagirs and sometimes resorted to private agreements with the Marathas.
• This dynamic enhanced the power and prestige of the Marathas while demoralizing the Mughal nobility and diminishing imperial prestige.
• The Maratha raids extended from the Deccan to the heartland of the Mughal Empire, including the Gangetic plains.
• Aurangzeb's handling of Marwar and Mewar was marked by clumsiness and blunders, yielding no advantages for the Mughals. The Mughal failures against these states tarnished military prestige.
• The breach with Marwar and Mewar weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs at a critical juncture, raising doubts about Mughal support for trusted allies and Aurangzeb's motives.
• Continuous anarchy and wars brought trade, industry, and agriculture to a standstill in revolt-affected areas. For instance, Chetan Singh's study of Punjab highlighted the social and economic consequences of the Afghan uprising and Sikh rebellion, disrupting trade and eroding the agrarian economy.
• Over time, the Jat, Maratha, and Sikh movements aimed to establish independent regional states. Although Guru Gobind Singh could not withstand Mughal pressure or establish a separate Sikh state, he laid the groundwork for future realization of an egalitarian religious movement evolving into a political and militaristic force.
• The Afghan uprising created favorable conditions for other revolts, easing Mughal pressure on Shivaji and hindering Mughal expansion in the Deccan until 1676, by which time Shivaji had been crowned and allied with Bijapur and Golconda.
• If not for the breach with the Rajputs, the Rathor Rajputs might have aided the Mughals in the Deccan campaign.
• Aurangzeb's policy towards Marwar and Mewar, despite involving minimal troops after 1681, weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs. The persistent service of contingents like the Hada and Kachhwaha Rajputs did not mitigate the damage.
• The impact of Aurangzeb's Marwar policy extended beyond military consequences, creating doubts about Mughal support for loyal allies and reflecting Aurangzeb's rigid nature. However, it did not signify a fixed intention to undermine Hinduism, as many Marathas were admitted into the nobility after 1679.

However, impacts of these revolts should not be overestimated

• Mughal army failed against the elusive and highly mobile bands of Marathas in the mountainous region of the Deccan.
• In the plains of north India and the vast plateau extending up to Karnataka, the Mughal artillery remained dominant.
• In northern India, the heart of the empire, the Mughal administration retained much of its vigor.
• Trade and industry not only continued to flourish but also expanded during this period.
• Despite military reverses and mistakes made by Aurangzeb,the Mughal dynasty still held a powerful grip on the minds and imaginations of the people.
• Regarding the Rajputs, their demands for high mansabs and the restoration of their homelands were met within a few years after Aurangzeb’s death.
• This resolution diminished the Rajput problem for the Mughals.
• The Rajputs played a minimal role in the subsequent disintegration of the empire and did not contribute to halting its decline.
• While revolts had socio-economic and political consequences, they were not the sole原因 for the weakening and decline of the Mughal empire.
• Various other factors also played a significant role in shaping the history of the 18th century.