Mughal Theory of Sovereignty | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Importance of Sovereignty in Indian, Persian, and Turco-Mongol Traditions:

• Sovereignty is crucial for maintaining order, stability, and eradicating anarchy and lawlessness in society.

Monarchy as the Keystone of Medieval Polity:

• Monarchy was viewed as essential for societal stability.
• Abul Fazl emphasized the necessity of royalty in preventing strife and selfish ambition.
• Without royalty, society would descend into lawlessness and destruction.

Impact of Sovereignty on State and Administration:

• The nature of the state and the administrative structure of an empire were heavily influenced by the theory of sovereignty.
• The king's policies and actions played a pivotal role in shaping the empire.

Relevance of Central Asian Theory of State:

• Understanding the Central Asian theory of state is crucial for comprehending Mughal polity.
• It provides insights into the historical and cultural influences on Mughal governance.

The background

• They had almost two hundred years of experience in dynastic rule from Central Asia.
• They brought established principles of administration with them.
• The necessity to adapt to a new environment made them flexible, allowing them to absorb local traditions.

Indo-Islamic Trends:

• The Mughals' administrative structure and policies in India reflected a mix of Indo-Islamic trends.
• Their rich Central Asian heritage and Turco-Mongol legacy were evident in practices, institutions, and terminology.
• Elements of the Chingizi and Timuri political systems were present in the Mughal framework.

Connection to Ancestry:

• Babur, although a Turco-Mongol, identified himself as a 'Turk' and was proud of his lineage from Chingiz Khan (maternal side) and Timur (paternal side).
• Despite occasional criticisms of the Mongols, Babur respected Chingiz Khan and his family.
• Akbar also honored his Mongol ancestry, as noted by Abul Fazl, who praised Chingiz as a "great man."

Dynasty and Ancestry Claims:

• The Mughal dynasty in India was referred to as 'Chaghatai,' 'Mughal,' and 'Qarawanah,' regardless of genealogical distinctions.
• Mughal rulers emphasized their connection to Chingiz and Timur in biographies, historical records, and royal documents.
• This emphasis on kinship reflected the Mughals' desire to align themselves with the Chingiz family, whether through real or exaggerated genealogy.

Preservation of Legacy:

• While ruling in India, the Mughals preserved their rich legacy from Central Asia, adapting terms and institutions to suit local needs.
• There were similarities in terminology, though the meanings could differ.
• The Mughals thoroughly adapted Central Asian terms and institutions to fit the Indian context.

Nature of Central asian polity: Turco-Mongol impact

• The Mughals adopted the Central Asian polity, which had Turkish and Mongol traits.
• There is debate among scholars about the extent of these influences:
• Mongol Predominance: Some argue that Mongol traditions were the most significant.
• Turco-Mongol Influence: Others believe that Turkish influence was so strong that it transformed the Mongol system into a Turco-Mongol one.
• When Chingiz Khan came to Central Asia, his army was primarily made up of Turks, with only a small number of Mongols.
• It is noted that Mughal norms and practices were often followed in the manner of Chingiz Khan.
• The Empire of Timur was a unique blend of Turco-Mongolian political and military systems.
• Timur belonged to the Barlas tribe, which was a Turco-Mongol tribe.

Influence of Turah

• Central Asian administration under the Mughals was influenced by turah, laws established by Chingiz Khan.
• Turah focused on political principles and government organization, without religious elements, and was seen as an unchangeable code.
• Akbar embraced Central Asian traditions, blending them with Indian practices and Perso-Islamic principles in Mughal politics and administration.
• Turah is mentioned in Jahangir's writings but became less prominent during Shah Jahan's reign, overshadowed by religious revivalism under Aurangzeb.
• Despite its decline, turah and Chaghatai traditions were linked to Mughal Emperors' realpolitik, emphasizing connections with Chingiz and Timur.
• Turah's legacy persisted in ceremonial laws and etiquette, though references to Chaghatai traditions diminished over time.

Turco-Mongol Concept of Sovereignty

• Mongol Belief in Khan's Power: The Mongols believed in the absolute power of the Khan, as reflected in the words of a Mongol Khan who said, "In the sky, there can only be one sun or one moon; how can there be two masters on earth?"
• Division of Empire: The division of the empire among the ruler's sons was a key principle of Mongol sovereignty, aimed at facilitating administration and satisfying the governance desires of princes.
• Timur's Concept of Sovereignty: Timur followed the idea of absolute sovereignty, stating that "the whole expanse of the inhabited part of the world is not worthy of two kings." He believed in the necessity of a single vicegerent of God on earth.
• Partnership in Rule: Babur emphasized that "partnership in rule is a thing unheard of," reflecting the tradition of absolute monarchy.
• Timur and Chingiz Khan's Lineage: There was historical debate about Timur's absolute monarchy since he accepted the nominal overlordship of a descendant of Chingiz Khan. Timur never used a title higher than amir, and his successor Shahrukh assumed the title of Padshah and Sultan-ul Azam.
• Puppet Khans: Timur maintained puppet Khans as a political necessity. Since Timur was not from Chingiz Khan's royal family, only Chingiz's tribe members could claim the title of Khan. These Khans were confined to localities and had limited royal prerogatives.
• Timur's Sovereignty: After gaining power and support from Chaghatai nobles, Timur proclaimed himself sovereign in 1370 with the title of sahib-i qiran. He held a grand coronation ceremony for himself alone and did not honor Khans in front of troops.
• Consultative Assembly and Spiritual Leadership: Timur did not prioritize the consultative assembly (qurultai) and considered himself both the temporal and spiritual leader. He claimed to receive direct revelations from God, giving divine sanction to his rule.
• Puppet Khans as Political Strategy: The installation of puppet Khans was a political strategy used by Timur and his successors to gain Mongol support and legitimize their rule over territories taken from the Mongols.
• Post-Mahmud Period: After the death of Mahmud in 1402, Timur stopped appointing other Khans, solidifying his own power.

Nature of Political Structure

• Some scholars believe that the political structure of the Timuri rulers in Central Asia showed trends toward greater centralization.
• However, this view is contested by others who argue that the tribal nature of the Mongol polity prevented the establishment of absolute rule comparable to the Turkish monarchy.
• In Chingiz Khan’s Empire, power belonged not to the ruler but to the ruling family.
• Despite the decline and disintegration of the Timuri state, traditions of despotic and absolute monarchy persisted.
• It is reasonable to conclude that the Timuri polity was fundamentally one of absolutism, with minor deviations or exceptions not altering this core fact.

Custom of Succession

• Chingiz Khan appointed his successor but allowed any worthy son or grandson of a king to take the throne.
• This system of merit-based nomination continued until the Timurid period.
• While the Khan's choice was not always followed, a person's worth could lead to their own coronation.
• The emphasis on 'worth' sparked ambitions among many princes, leading to frequent civil wars, fratricide, and rebellions in Central Asia and Mughal India.
• According to Old Turco-Mongol tradition, kingship was not limited to the king's sons.
• With the inclusion of grandsons and uncles, the number of potential successors grew significantly.
• Succession could be determined by worth or popular support.
• In all cases (nomination, contrivance, and selection), succession had to be ratified by a qurultai, an assembly of princes and nobles, ensuring the submission of all notables.

Centre-State Relationship

• The king was the central figure in the administration of the Empire.
• The khutba(a public proclamation) was delivered, and coins were minted in the king's name throughout the Empire.
• Provincial rulers were appointed by the king and had to follow his regulations and orders. Their authority came from the king's will.
• Provincial rulership and land grants provided income for the royal family members.
• Despite these appointments, the ultimate authority remained with the king.
• Provincial rulers could not interfere with the collection of the king’s revenue share.
• For administrative tasks, the Khan appointed special deputies in each khanate.
• If a provincial ruler (Sultan) failed to follow the Khan's orders or meet military or financial obligations on time, there would be severe consequences.
• Although provincial rulers could have diplomatic relations with foreign powers, major decisions like going to war or signing treaties were made by the king.
• The king had the power to intervene in disputes between provinces and could transfer or remove a troublesome Sultan.
• The division of authority was necessary for managing the vast Empire and addressing the ambitions of various princes. Thus, the king in the Chingizi or Timuri Empire was not merely one of the other Sultans.

The Nobility

• The nobility, created by the king himself, was meant to be the main source of his strength.
• When a new Khan ascended to the throne, the nobility had to swear an oath of loyalty and subservience to him.
• The Turco-Mongol political structure ensured that nobles remained subordinate to the Khan, despite their conditional privileges.
• Some scholars argue that the hereditary privileges of a large section of the nobility hindered the growth of absolutism in the Mongol Empire.
• Though rulers in Transoxiana sometimes granted special status to favored amirs, these privileges were typically based on reciprocity.
• If a noble defied the king, their privileges could be revoked.
• A new king had the power to renew or withhold privileges granted by his predecessors.
• Chingiz Khan included a clause in his code that limited the number of offenses for which nobles with special status could be forgiven, demonstrating his absolute power over them.
• There are instances where nobles with high standing and hereditary privileges were dismissed,executed,punished,fined, or banished.

The Mughal theory of state: Its development

• Babur's Vision: Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, introduced the concept of sovereignty with a strong emphasis on military power and divine right. He believed that a ruler's legitimacy came from their ability to conquer and maintain territory, as well as their lineage from Timur and Genghis Khan. Babur's memoirs, the Baburnama, reflect his views on kingship and the importance of a strong military.
• Humayun's Challenges: Humayun faced significant challenges during his reign, including the loss of the empire to Sher Shah Suri. His struggles highlighted the importance of administrative efficiency and military strength. Despite his setbacks, Humayun's eventual return to power and efforts to stabilize the empire laid the groundwork for the later expansion under Akbar.
• Akbar's Synthesis: Akbar, the grandson of Babur, expanded and refined the concept of sovereignty. He shifted the focus from mere conquest to administrative efficiency and inclusivity. Akbar implemented a centralized administration, promoted religious tolerance through the Din-i Ilahi, and fostered cultural integration. His reign marked the peak of Mughal sovereignty, where the ruler's authority was reinforced by justice,administrative prowess, and cultural patronage.
• Legacy of Sovereignty: The evolution of Mughal sovereignty from Babur to Akbar reflects a shift from military dominance to a more nuanced understanding of governance. Akbar's model of a strong, just, and inclusive ruler set a precedent for future Mughal emperors and left a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent.

Babur and Humayun

Historians have different views on the nature of the Timuri polity and its influences:

• Some believe it was absolutist and centralized, influenced by the Turco-Mongol polity, and superior to the Afghan power structure.
• Others argue that while there was early Mongol influence, over time, the Mongol polity lost its centralizing and absolutist traits.

When Babur arrived in India, he inherited a polity influenced by both Turki and Mongol structures.

Regarding the absolutist nature of the Mughal polity, it is argued that the Timuri rulers, including Babur, did not assume the title of khaqaan, suggesting a concession to the special status of the Khans. However, this view oversimplifies a complex issue.

Key Concepts:

• The Mongol theory of kingship emphasized division of the empire among the ruler's sons, but Babur rejected this idea.
• Babur's title of ‘Padshah’ was Turkish, and Humayun’s actions reflected the personal nature of sovereignty.
• Hereditary privileges of nobles were sanctioned by the ruler and had to be renewed by new rulers.
• Babur and Humayun respected the Chaghatai code of laws, which opposed the idea of multiple rulers at the same time.

These points illustrate the complexity of the Mughal polity's relationship with Mongol traditions and the evolution of its governance principles.

Akbar

Akbar's Theory of Kingship:

• Influenced by various factors including the Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestry, the teachings of figures like Abul Latif and Pir Mohammad, the Sufi and Bhakti movements, and the political necessities of his time.
• Articulated by Abul Fazl in the Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl emphasized that royalty is the highest dignity in God's eyes and a remedy for rebellion. The term "Padshah" itself signifies stability and possession.
• Abul Fazl portrayed the king as a divine and enlightened figure through symbols, metaphors, and miniature paintings.
• He described kingship as a gift from God, with the ruler being independent of religious scholars (ulama) and everyone required to submit to the king.
• Royalty is depicted as a divine light (farr-i-izidi) emanating from God, with no intermediaries involved. This divine light bestows qualities such as paternal love, generosity, trust in God, and moderation on the king.
• The king was seen as divinely appointed, guided, and protected, with a dynastic ideology linking his ancestry to the supernatural.
• Practices like Zharoka-i-darshan,Sijda, and Jameen Bes were forms of court salutation, reflecting the king's divine status.
• Abul Fazl advocated for a liberal absolutism under a morally and spiritually superior ruler, not reliant on religious leaders for legitimacy.
• The concepts of farr-i-izidi and kiyan khwarah aimed to protect the king's authority from any interference.
• Abul Fazl's theory of sovereignty, as presented in mahzar and Ai’n-i rahnamuni, aligned with Central Asian, Perso-Islamic, and Chingizi traditions of sovereignty.
• Through the mahzar, Akbar was recognized as a just ruler (Imam Adil) and became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subjugating the ulama.
• Akbar's title of Kalipha and his capital Daru-i-Khilafat reflected his authority.
• Abul Fazl described the king as a spiritual guide for the nation, possessing divine wisdom independent of others.
• Other aspects of sovereignty included maintaining societal equilibrium, promoting Sulh-i-kul(peace with all), and ensuring justice and protection for all subjects.
• Justice was a key virtue of the monarch, symbolized by figures like the lion and lamb coexisting peacefully.
• Abul Fazl defined sovereignty as a contract where the emperor protects the essences of his subjects (life, property, honor, religion) in exchange for obedience and a share of resources.
• A just sovereign, guided by power and divine insight, was deemed capable of honoring this contract.