Pallava Dynasty | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• After the Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu, a period of around 250 years was marked by the rule of the Kalabhras. Following this, the Pallavas rose to prominence in Tondaimandalam, with Kanchipuram as their capital.
• The Pallavas initially served as feudatories under the Satavahanas. When the Satavahanas conquered Tondaimandalam, the Pallavas became their vassals. After the Satavahanas fell in the third century A.D., the Pallavas gained independence.
• Influenced by their connection with the Satavahanas, the Pallavas initially issued inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit and supported Brahmanism. They were primarily associated with Tondaimandalam, the region between the north Penner and north Vellar rivers.
• The Pallava rule persisted until the early tenth century A.D., when Tondaimandalam was taken over by the Imperial Cholas. The Pallavas were prominent in South India from the 6th to the 8th centuries CE, contributing significantly to both the political and cultural spheres, especially during the post-Gupta period when North India’s strength had waned.

Debate on the Origin and Homeland of the Pallavas

The debate regarding the origin and homeland of the Pallavas primarily revolves around two theories: foreign and indigenous.

Foreign Theory:

• Some scholars suggest that the Pallavas were descendants of the Pahlavas, a Persian tribe. They argue that the term "Pallava" is a Sanskritized version of "Pahlavas." However, this view is criticized for being based on superficial verbal similarity.

Indigenous Theory:

• V. Smith, a scholar, rejects the foreign origin theory and proposes that the Pallavas were indigenous to the South. He connects them with the Kurumbas and suggests a blood relationship with the Kallar tribe.
• Another perspective posits that the Pallavas were of Naga origin, citing the Naga-Chola alliance in the Tamil literature "Manimekhalai." This view is considered plausible because the Nagas mentioned in the text are associated with the Andhras, and the early Pallavas ruled the lower Krishna valley.
• There is also a theory that the Pallavas came from the North and had Brahmanical origins. This theory is supported by the Pallavas' claims of Brahman ancestry, their patronage of Sanskrit learning, and the performance of the Asvamedha sacrifice.
• Some scholars suggest that the Pallavas were a branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas from the Deccan.
• The view that the Pallavas were natives of Tondaimandalam is widely accepted among scholars. This theory links them to the Pulindas mentioned in the inscriptions of Ashoka.

Political Achievements of the Pallavas

The political achievements of the Pallavas can be categorized into two main heads: administrative achievements and military achievements.

Administrative Achievements

Central Government:

• The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.
• The king was at the center of administration, assisted by able ministers called Rahasyadikadas.
• The king was the fountain of justice and provided land grants to temples (Devadana) and to Brahmanas (Brahmadeya).
• In the late Pallava and early Chola periods, there was a shift in royal patronage from gifts to Brahmanas to gifts to temples.
• The central government was responsible for providing irrigation facilities to the lands. The Pallava kings dug various irrigation tanks, such as those at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor.
• There was a regular hierarchy of civil and military officials.

Provincial Administration:

• The Pallava state was divided into provinces (Rastras or Mandalas), governed by princes of royal blood or by scions of noble families.
• Smaller divisions Kottams and nadus were administered by officers appointed by the king.

Local Administration:

• Pallava inscriptions provide insight into village assemblies called sabhas and their committees.
• Sabhas maintained records of village lands, managed local affairs, and looked after temples, gardens, public baths, and tanks.
• They also exercised judicial functions and acted as trustees of public endowments.
• The system of irrigation and land survey was efficient, with properly marked village boundaries and detailed records of arable and fallow lands for revenue purposes and grants to Brahmanas.

Military Administration:

• The Pallavas maintained a well-trained army consisting mainly of foot soldiers and cavalry, with a small body of elephants.
• Chariots were becoming less common, especially in the hilly terrain where much fighting occurred.
• Army officers could also be used in civil administration, but there was generally a clear distinction between civil and military administration.

Revenue Administration:

• Pallava inscriptions provide detailed information about the tax system.
• Land tax was the primary source of government revenue.
• The king laid claim to 18 kinds of dues from the village people.
• Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempt from tax.
• Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washermen, oil-pressers, and weavers paid taxes to the government.
• Various other kinds of taxes were imposed, including fees on marriages, stalls and shops, and brokerage fees.

Military Achievements

The military achievements of the Pallavas are outlined below:

Early Prakrit Charters:

• According to the early Prakrit charters of the Pallavas, the first great king was Siva Skandavarman, who reigned in the 3rd century AD.
• His dominion included Kanchi and the surrounding areas.

Defeat by Samudragupta:

• In the 4th century AD, a Pallava king of Kanchi named Vishnugopa was defeated by Samudragupta.
• This defeat likely disorganized the Pallava Empire, making its history obscure for about a century and a half.

Pallava Rulers:

• Some Sanskrit charters reveal the names of several Pallava rulers.
• Some of these rulers had authority over the Gangas of Mysore and the Kadambas of Banavasi.

Conflict with Tamil Kingdoms:

• The Pallavas were hereditary enemies of the three Tamil kingdoms (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas).
• They were regarded as intruders in the southern districts and were distinct in race from the Tamils.
• The Pallavas engaged in constant hostility with the Tamil states, superimposing their rule over the three Tamil states and establishing their supremacy.

Imperial Pallavas:

• In the last quarter of the 6th century, a new dynasty called the Imperial Pallavas was founded by Simhavishnu.
• He claimed to have defeated the Pandya, Chera, and Chola kings, as well as the ruler of Ceylon.

Mahendravarman I and Pulakeshin II:

• Mahendravarman I, the son and successor of Simhavishnu, reigned from 600 to 625 AD.
• His reign marked the beginning of the long struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.
• Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya king, defeated Mahendravarman I and annexed the northern part of the Pallava kingdom.
• Pulakeshin II also wrested the provinces of Vengi from the Pallavas in 610 AD.

Narasimhavarman I and Pulakeshin II:

• Narasimhavarman I, the successor of Mahendravarman I, was the greatest and most successful ruler of the Pallava dynasty.
• He defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD, with the aid of their ally Manavarma, a Sri Lankan prince.
• Narasimhavarman I invaded the Chalukyan kingdom, capturing Vatapi, and took the title Vatapikondan.
• During his reign, the Pallavas became the dominant power in the Tamil land and the Deccan.
• Narasimhavarman I claimed to have defeated the Cholas, Cheras, and Kalabhras, and he led two successful naval expeditions to Ceylon to assist Manavarma.

Mahendravarman II and Vikramaditya I:

• After the death of Narasimhavarman I around 668 AD, he was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II(668-670).
• During his reign, the Chalukya-Pallava conflict resumed, and Mahendravarman II was defeated and possibly killed by Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya I(654-681).

Parameshvaravarman I and Vikramaditya I:

• Chalukya king Vikramaditya I defeated the Pallavas under Parameshvaravarman I, recovering his ancestral dominions and occupying Kanchi(655 AD).

Vikramaditya II and Pallavas:

• There was a lull in the conflict between the Chalukyas and Pallavas during the reigns of Vikramaditya II and Pallava ruler Narsimhavarmana(695-722).
• Vikramaditya II resumed the conflict, leading to long-continued warfare with the Chalukyas and Pandyas, which undermined Pallava power.
• In 740 AD, Pallava king Nandvarnan suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Vikramaditya II, who occupied Kanchi again.

Struggle with Pandyas and Rashtrakutas:

• The Pallavas also came into conflict with the Pandyas to the south and the Rashtrakutas to the north.
• In the early 9th century, Rashtrakuta Govinda III invaded Kanchi during the reign of Pallava Dantivarman.
• The struggles with the Pandyas were constant. Nandvarnan was defeated by Rajasimha I, the Pandya king.

Last Phase of the Pallavas:

• In these difficult times, the Pallavas entered into a matrimonial alliance with Dantidurga of the Rashtrakutas.
• Dantidurga attacked and overthrew his suzerain Kirtivarman II, the Chalukya king, and proclaimed himself the paramount ruler of the Deccan, founding the Rashtrakuta Empire.
• Dantivarman’s son Nandivarman III managed to defeat the Pandyas.
• The last known imperial Pallava king was Aparajita.
• Aided by Western Ganga and Chola allies, he defeated the Pandyas at the battle of Shripurambiyam.
• The Pallavas under Aparajita were ultimately overthrown around 893 AD by Chola king Aditya I, leading to the transfer of control over Tondaimandalam to the Cholas.
• This marked the collapse of the Pallavas as a dominant power, although they continued to exist as local rulers until the 13th century.
• The overlordship of the Far South passed into the hands of the Cholas.

Political Contributions of the Pallavas

The Pallavas made significant political contributions by connecting the northern and southern political systems. They drew inspiration from northern India for their legitimacy practices, which included:

• Brahmadeya and Devadana Donations
• Patronizing Brahmanas
• Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Prakrit
• Performing Brahmanical Sacrifices

During the Pallava period, the nadu emerged as a crucial revenue unit in the political system, representing significant agricultural settlements.

Cultural Achievements

Patronage to Temple Architecture:

• The Pallava kings, particularly Mahendravarman I (600–625 CE),Narasimhavarman I (625–670 CE), and Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (700–728 CE), were renowned patrons of the arts.
• The Pallavas laid the foundation for the Dravidian style of architecture in South India, characterized by cave temples, monolithic temples, and structural temples.

Development of Temple Architecture

During the Pallava period, three forms of temple architecture evolved in three phases:

First Phase– Cave Temples (600 AD-640 AD):

• Pallava cave shrines, known as Mandaps, are smaller and less complex than those at Ajanta and Ellora.
• Examples include Lakshitayatana temple at Mandgappattu,Lalitankura’s cave at Tiruchirapalli, and some caves at Mamallapuram.
• The cave façades are generally plain, with dvarapalas marking the ends.
• Inside, the sanctum contains a linga or images of deities like Shiva, Vishnu, or Brahma.
• Exceptional relief carvings, such as the scene of Shiva receiving Ganga on his head in the Tiruchirapalli cave, are notable.

Mahendra Style:

• Cut out of Hills
• Consist of a main gate
• Pillars usually square, tall & thin
• Pillars have Capital, ornamentation over pillars
• Statues of Dwarpala at maingate
• Deities displayed in Mandaps
• Peculiar forms of Dwarapalas, Prabha toranas, Cubical pillars, Lion like capital of pillar used.

Examples of Mahendra Style:
Siva Temples:

• Satyagirinathar and Satyagirishwarar twin temples, Siyamangalam

Vishnu Temple:

• Mahendravishnugrha at Mahendravadi, and the Ranganatha Temple at Singavaram

Narasimha Varman Style / Mamallapuram Style:

• Main center: Mamallapuram
• Mandaps became more developed and showed richer ornamentation.
• Depictions of animals and Nagas became common.

Mamallapuram Caves:

• The more elaborate Pallava period caves are located at Mamallapuram, named after the Pallava king Narasimha I, also known as Mahamalla meaning “great hero.”
• The columns in these caves are comparatively slender, with multi-faceted or round shafts and cushion-shaped capitals.
• Some caves, such as the Adi-Varaha cave, are preceded by a tank.

Relief Carvings:
Rock-cut caves at Mamallapuram feature various mythological scenes carved in relief, including:

• Vishnu rescuing the earth
• Vishnu taking three strides
• Gaja-Lakshmi
• Durga(in the Adi-Varaha cave)
• Mahishasuramardini(in the Durga cave)
• Krishna lifting the Govardhana mountain(in the Pancha-Pandava cave)

The relief carvings of the Pallava cave shrines are generally shallower than those in the Deccan, with main figures being slender, delicate, and elegant. Their headdresses and crowns are plain, and they wear little or no jewelry.

Some Important Mandaps:

• Panch Pandav cave at Pallav Varam
• Trimurti cave at Mandag Pattu
• Vishnu cave at Maman Dur
• Adi Varah cave at Mahabalipuram
• Ramanuj cave at Mahabalipuram

Second Phase – Monolithic Free-Standing Rathas (640 AD-690 AD):

• Represents the Narasimavarman style.
• Temples referred to as rathas may represent celestial chariots for deities.
• These are monolithic temples, cut from a single rock.
• Characteristic features include beautiful pillars, often based on lion’s heads.
• Scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas are depicted.
• Colossal elephants and other animals are also depicted.

Panch Rathas at Mamallapuram

• At Mamallapuram, there are nine rock-cut temples, with five clustered together.
• These five, known as the southern group, are named after the Pandava brothers and their mother:
• Draupadi
• Arjuna
• Bhima
• Dharmaraja
• Sahadeva

The Panch Rathas represent the diversity of Dravidian architecture of the time and trace back to wooden constructions of temple chariots. They served as models for much larger temples built subsequently in Tamil Nadu.

Dharmaraja Ratha:

• The largest and most popular ratha, Dharmaraja Ratha, features a pyramidal shikhara and three stories.
• It has a square plan, open porches, and a terraced pyramidal tower.
• The pillar shafts are supported by seated lions.

Bhima Ratha:

• Longitudinal in shape with a barrel-vaulted roof.

Draupadi Ratha:

• The smallest ratha, showing minimal ornamentation, resembles a mobile rath.
• It is a small square structure with a curvilinear roof, shaped like the thatched roof of a hut.

Arjuna Ratha:

• Incomplete, possibly abandoned due to the rock's inability to withstand the carving pressure.

Nakul/Sahadeva Ratha:

• Also incomplete and semi-circular in shape, with no deity inscribed.

Other Temples:

• The three others in the north and north-west are called Ganesa, Pidari, and Valaiyan-Kuttai.
• All are Saiva temples.
• Bhima, Ganesh, and Sahdeo Rathas have two or more stories and are similar to Chaityas.
• The outer walls of the Mamallapuram temples are decorated with scenes from Hindu mythology.
• The south face of the Dharmaraja Ratha features a portrait identified as king Narasimhavarman Mamalla I by an inscription.

Third Phase- Structural Free-Standing Temples (700 AD – 900 AD):

• Rajsimha style (700 AD – 800 AD)
• During the reign of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha, the rock-cut technique of temple building was replaced by structural temples.
• This phase marks the beginning of free-standing temples and the first phase in the development of temple architecture.
• Six temples belong to this phase: three at Mahabalipuram, two at Kanchipuram, and one at Panamalai.
• Among these, three are significant:
• Shore Temple(at Mahabalipuram),Kailashnath Temple(Kanchipuram), and Vaikunth Perumal Temple(Uttaremerur, Kanchipuram).
• In Kailashnath, there is also a gateway known as Gopuram, featuring a pyramidal structure.
• Kailasanatha and Vaikunthaperumal at Kanchipuram are well-integrated and represent the maturest examples of the style.
• Important parts include Garbhagariha,Pyramidical Shikhara, and Assembly hall.

Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram:

• Assigned to the reign of Rajasimha, the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram contains three shrine areas with:
• A stone Shiva linga
• Somaskanda (Shiva with Uma and Skanda, a popular theme in the Pallava period)
• Vishnu resting on the serpent Ananta
• The two shikharas are terraced and slender.
• The relief sculptures of the temple are heavily eroded due to the sea breeze and sand.

Rajasimheshvara or Kailashanatha Temple at Kanchipuram:

• Also attributed to the reign of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha, this temple features a complex within a large rectangular enclosure, consisting of a main shrine and over 50 subsidiary shrines.
• The main temple comprises a square sanctum enshrining a linga, with an enclosed circumambulatory passage surrounded by nine small shrines.
• The shikhara follows the typical southern style.
• The pillared hall and verandah preceding the shrine may have been added later.
• The enclosure walls have gopuras.
• The Kailashanatha temple is more heavily ornamented with sculptures than other structures of the Pallava period, with frequent representations of Somaskanda and recurring lion motifs on the enclosure wall.
• This temple signifies an important stage in the evolution of South Indian temples.

Vaikunth Perumal Temple:

Belonging to the Nandivarman style (800 AD – 900 AD), this style represents the last phase in the development of temple architecture.

• Temples from this period are smaller structures and prototypes of previous ones, showing no novelty value.
• The Nandivarman group marks no significant advancement over earlier achievements, comprising generally smaller temples reflecting the decline of the Pallavas.
• These temples exhibit greater development of capitals.
• Examples include Mukteswar temple(Kanchi),Mang Teswar temple(Kanchi), and Parashurameshwar(Gudi Malam).

Patronage to Sculptural Art

• Pallava sculpture exhibits a unique style distinct from Gupta period sculptures in northern India.
• The human figures in Pallava sculptures have oval faces with high cheekbones, and slender bodies with tapering limbs.
• Sculptures are integral to temple architecture, with beautiful examples found in temples.
• The predominant theme in these sculptures is religious, depicting gods and goddesses, natural scenes, animals, and royalty.
• While there are elements of Buddhist tradition, Pallava sculptures are more splendid, with a tendency towards diminished ornamentation.
• Images in mandapas feature deities like Vishnu, Varaha, Durga, and dwarapalakas (gatekeepers).
• Images in rathas showcased in the Dropadi Ratha, with the statue of Durga being particularly remarkable.
• Images in temples, especially in the Rajsimha style, such as the Perumal Temple and Kailashnath Temple, feature beautiful sculptures of dwarapalakas and the dancing Shiva.

Open-air Relief at Mamallapuram:

• In addition to temple sculptures, the Open Art Gallery at Mamallapuram is a significant monument showcasing the sculptural beauty of the Pallava period.
• This colossal open-air relief, carved across two boulders, measures about 15 meters high and 30 meters long.
• The rock face is adorned with a multitude of figures, including people and animals like elephants, all in near life-size dimensions.
• The intricate details and themes of these sculptures, such as the figures of a lice-picking monkey, large elephants, and the ascetic cat standing upright, attest to the sculptor's skill.
• On special occasions, water likely flowed from a cistern at the summit into the natural cleft between the two rocks, where a naga and nagini figure are carved.
• The scene depicted in this relief has been interpreted in two ways: as the descent of the Ganga or as Arjuna’s penance.

Arjuna’s Penance:

• Arjuna’s penance is a narrative from the Mahabharata, central to the theme of Kiratarjuniya. It involves Arjuna performing penance to acquire weapons from Shiva.
• During his penance, a boar is sent by asuras to kill Arjuna, but Shiva intervenes to protect him, disguising himself as a kirata(hunter).
• A conflict arises as both Arjuna and the kirata claim to have killed the boar. Shiva ultimately reveals his true identity to Arjuna.

Patronage to Fine Art

Painting:

• Painting flourished alongside temple architecture during the Pallava period.
• Depictions of gods and goddesses, lotus flowers, ducks, and geometric designs were common themes.
• Both religious and secular social themes were represented, primarily through wall paintings using the Fresco-Secco technique.
• Notable examples of painting can be seen in the Kailashnath temple and the Sittanavasal Jaina temple.
• Mahendravarman I earned the title of Chitrakarapuli(tiger among artists), highlighting his painting talents, particularly attributed to the paintings on the ceiling of a rock-cut temple at Sittanvasal.
• The commentary Dakshinchitra was compiled during Mahendravarman I's reign, further emphasizing the period's artistic achievements.

Music:

• Mahendravarman I is recognized as an expert in music, with the Kudumianmalai inscription attributed to him.
• This inscription mentions musical notes and instruments, while the Mamandur inscription includes details on vocal music notation.
• The Alwars and Nayanmars composed hymns in various musical notes, with the Bhakti movement popularizing instruments like the flute.
• Dance and drama also saw development during this time, with sculptures depicting numerous dancing postures and the performance of the Bharatanatyam dance form in temples.

Patronage of Religion

• The Pallavas, claiming descent from the god Brahma, were strong proponents of Hinduism, performing various yajnas and constructing temples and images dedicated to deities like Vishnu,Siva,Brahma, and Lakshmi.
• They played a significant role in the Aryanisation of the South, promoting Hindu religion and Sanskrit literature.
• Kanchi emerged as a major center of learning and religious activity, contributing to the spread of Aryan culture and becoming one of the seven sacred cities for Hindus.
• While the Pallavas favored Saivism and Bhagavatism, they were tolerant rulers, providing protection to Jainism and Buddhism as well.
• They supported Brahmanas and temples, making land grants known as Brahmadeya and Devadana, with an increase in such donations from the Pallava to the Chola periods.
• Royal land grants to temples were made in perpetuity, often accompanied by tax exemptions and privileges.
• Mahendravarman I, initially a Jain, converted to Saivism under the influence of Saint Appar.
• The Bhakti movement also emerged during the Pallava period, characterized by strong theistic devotion, popularized by Nayanars(Shaiva saints) and Alvars(Vaishnava saints).

Patronage to Literature

• During the Pallava rule, there was significant literary activity with strong royal support for Sanskrit.
• Language of Inscriptions:
• Early Pallava rulers(250 A.D. to 350 A.D.) issued their charters in Prakrit.
• Second line of rulers(350 A.D. to 550 A.D.) issued charters in Sanskrit, with Vishnugopa being a notable ruler.
• Third line of rulers(575 A.D. to 9th century) issued charters in Sanskrit and Tamil.
• Early Pallava inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Prakrit, with later ones using Tamil for prasasti portions in high-order Sanskrit.
• Kanchi, the capital, was a center of learning and culture, attracting figures like Dignaga and Mayurasarman.
• Vedic colleges were located in temples endowed by the wealthy, and poets like Bharavi were invited to courts.
• Dandin, a Sanskrit writer on poetics, lived during Narasimhavaman II Rajasimha's reign.
• Mahendravarman I was likely an author of repute, credited with the burlesque Mattavilasa-prahasana.
• Bhakti literature in Tamil also grew, with songs by Alvars(Vaishnava saints) and Nayanars(Saiva saints), later compiled in texts like Nalayira Prabandham and Devarama.
• Perundevanar, patronized by Nandivarman II, translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in Tamil.
• Nandikkalambagam was another significant work, though the author is unknown.

Society during the Pallava Period

Changes in Tamil Society:

• The Pallava period brought significant changes to Tamil society, particularly with the increasing rigidity of the caste system.

Aryan Influence in the South:

• The social structure during the Pallava period showed the growing impact of Aryan culture, which began to blend with the existing Dravidian social ethos.
• The influence of Aryan ideas and institutions was particularly noticeable among the upper strata of society.
• Aryanization was evident in several aspects:
• Pre-eminence of Brahmins: During this period, Brahmins gained a privileged status, surpassing Jains and Buddhists in shaping policies.
• Sanskrit in Inscriptions: The use of Sanskrit in inscriptions became more common.
• Brahmanical Educational Institutions: Institutions like Brahmadeya emerged, reflecting the Aryan influence in education.

Shift in Educational Patronage:

• Brahmins became the dominant force in educational and policy-making roles, with Jaina and Buddhist centers losing royal patronage despite their continued existence.

New Socio-Religious Ideas:

• The diffusion of the Aryan pattern also served as a catalyst for new socio-religious ideas, one of which was Tamil Devotionalism.
• This period marked the culmination of the synthesis between Aryan and Dravidian cultures.
• It also witnessed the crystallization of Dravidian culture, with indigenous elements asserting themselves at lower levels.

Brahmins and Sanskritic Culture:

• Brahmins maintained a pre-eminent position as custodians of Sanskritic culture and learning.
• They received land grants from kings and nobles, and their influence was supported by royal patronage.
• Brahmins were entrusted with the responsibility of looking after temples, further solidifying their role in society.
• Sanskritic educational institutions evolved under their control, leading to the erosion of Buddhist and Jaina influence in this sphere.

Brahmanical Dominance:

• Brahmins upheld class exclusiveness and emerged as advocates of Varna regulations.
• Sanskritic learning became prominent in the educational field.
• The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of learning, with their capital, Kanchi, being a renowned center of education.

Kanchi as a Center of Learning:

• The Ghatika at Kanchi attracted students from all over India and beyond, becoming a prestigious institution.
• Notable figures such as Mayurasarman, Dinganaga, and Dharmapala studied at Kanchi, highlighting its importance in the educational landscape of the time.
• Ghatikas were often attached to temples, initially open to all twice-born Hindus but later becoming exclusive Brahman institutions focused on advanced studies.

Rise of Mathas:

• Mathas gained popularity in the 8th century as rest houses, educational centers, and feeding centers.
• Sanskrit emerged as a prominent medium of instruction in educational institutions and gained popularity in literary circles.

Role of Temples in Society:

• Temples played a significant role in the socio-cultural life of people, evolving into social institutions.
• They served various functions, including acting as community parliamentary houses, educational centers, and promoters of employment through daily routines involving priests, musicians, and dancing girls.
• Temples organized festivals, fairs, learned contests, wrestling matches, and popular entertainments, acting as landlords and bankers.
• Certain economic activities flourished based on the demands of temples.

Bhakti Movement and Religious Developments:

• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism, with the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of these religions through their hymns composed in Tamil, emphasizing the importance of devotion or Bhakti.
• The construction of temples by Pallava kings facilitated the spread of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
• The Bhakti Movement during this period was characterized by strong theistic devotion to Siva and Vishnu, centered in Kanchi.
• Works by figures like Samkara and Kumarila represented a revival of Brahmanical religion and new philosophical postulates.
• While Buddhism was in decline, Jainism gained popularity, leading to intense controversies where proponents of Hinduism held advantageous positions.

Specific Features of Agrarian Society under the Pallavas

During the Pallava and Chola periods in South India, agriculture saw significant advancements compared to the Sangam period. The kings of this era were deeply invested in the progress and enhancement of agriculture.

Sources of Information about Agriculture

Inscriptions:

• Records such as brahmadeya and devadana detail land donations, taxes on land, and the royal share of produce.
• The Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman I, Kuram plates of Paramesvaravarman I, and Velurpalayam plates of Nandivarman II provide insights into land tenures and irrigation conditions.
• However, inscriptions offer limited information on cultivation methods.

Literary Sources:

• Religious texts like Devaram and Divya Prapandam reflect prosperous agricultural conditions.
• Periyapuranam by Sekkilar and Kambar’s works, such as Ramayanam and Er Elupadu, provide details on cultivation methods, implements, and the lives of agrarian communities.
• Foreign traveler Huien Tsang also noted the fertile lands and prosperous agriculture in Kanchipuram.

Features of Agrarian Society

Land Tenures and Ownership:

• Various land tenures like brahmadeya,devadana, and Vellan-Vagai were prevalent, along with secular land transactions and private ownership.
• Common lands were managed by village assemblies, while private landholding increased over time.
• Lands were often granted as remuneration for services, including to army officials.

Irrigation Facilities:

• The kings were proactive in constructing tanks, wells, and irrigation channels.
• Special committees like Tank Supervision Committee (eri-variyam) and Sluice Supervision Committee (Kalingu-variyam) were established for maintenance.
• Endowments for tank and channel upkeep were common, and irrigation works were seen as vital royal duties.
• Private individuals also engaged in maintaining irrigation facilities as acts of charity.
• Floods, such as those of the Kaveri River, led to reclamation efforts by village assemblies and individuals.
• King Mahendravarman I was known for cutting the Mamandur tank, named Chithra Mega Tadakam.

Methods of Cultivation:

• Both wet and dry cultivation methods were practiced, with paddy cultivation through transplantation being popular.
• Cultivators were knowledgeable about manures and used various implements, with both men and women participating in agricultural activities.
• A variety of paddy and other crops were grown, and horticulture, including flower gardens, was also emphasized.
• A Field Supervision Committee (kalani-variyam) was established in villages to oversee agrarian activities.

Agrarian Taxation:

• Diverse taxes like Irai,Puravu, and Kanikkadan were imposed on land and produce.
• Lands were measured using rods, with assessments conducted based on measurements by the Puravu-vari-tinai kalam department.
• Newly reclaimed lands received tax concessions, but tax increases were sometimes revised due to protests from cultivators.

Reclamation of Uncultivated Lands:

• Land grants by kings brought large areas under cultivation, with forest, waste, and flooded lands being reclaimed.
• Reclamation was viewed as a meritorious act, and people reclaimed waste lands to donate to temples.
• Tax concessions and incentives encouraged reclamation efforts.

Cattle Wealth:

• Bulls were essential for ploughing and threshing.
• Inscriptions record donations of thousands of sheep,cows, and she-buffaloes to temples, indicating significant cattle wealth.
• Manradiyar, the shepherds, were responsible for cattle maintenance.

Position of Vellalas:

• The Vellalas were the major cultivating community, enjoying high social status and holding significant posts in civil and military administration.
• Nadu emerged as a key revenue settlement unit during the Pallava period, forming the economic base of the political system.

With royal patronage and improved irrigation facilities, agriculture expanded significantly during the Pallava period.