Albiruni’s India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Overview of Alberuni

• Alberuni, a Persian scholar from the Khwarezm region, lived from around 972 to 1048. He spent much of his life in Ghazni, present-day Afghanistan, which was the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty.
• He was the first notable Muslim Indologist and one of the greatest intellectuals of the 11th century. Alberuni accompanied Mahmud’s invading forces into the Indo-Gangetic valley as a freelance observer.
• A true polymath, Alberuni had encyclopedic knowledge in various fields, including astronomy, geography, physics, logic, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, religion, and theology. He was also a distinguished historian and chronologist.
• As a Shi'ite Muslim, Alberuni aimed to blend Greek wisdom with Islamic thought. His keen observations of Indian society and culture led some scholars to regard him as the first anthropologist.
• In 1017, he traveled to the Indian subcontinent, where he extensively studied the language, religion, and philosophy of the Hindus. His observations were compiled in the Arabic work Tarikh-ul Hind, which provides a classic account of the country and its people.
• Alberuni is often considered the “founder of Indology” due to his impartial writings on the customs and beliefs of various nations. Most of his works are in Arabic.

Mahmud Ghazni’s Influence on Al-Biruni

• Mahmud Ghazni’s approach to science significantly impacted Al-Biruni’s understanding and knowledge of Indian society. During this period, the promotion of scholarship was crucial for rulers, as having poets and scholars at the sultan’s court enhanced his prestige and reputation. Writers contributed to shaping the sultans’ image, and possessing numerous scholars and artists within one’s court signified prosperity and power, helping assert authority over dependent dynasties and the Caliphate.
• Mahmud encouraged scholarship by bringing scholars like Al-Biruni from Khwarezm to his court, alongside attracting other notable figures such as the poet Firdawsi and the physician and philosopher Ibn Sina, who, however, declined the offer. Mahmud also required individuals fluent in Indian languages to assist him in military raids and negotiations in al-Hind.
• It is likely that Indian pandits and texts were brought to Ghazna or Kabul, where Al-Biruni spent several years. This aligns with the sources of information mentioned in his works. The Kitab al-Hind reveals that Al-Biruni familiarized himself with various fields of Sanskrit literature, indicating the depth of his research and understanding.

Kitab ul Hind or Tarikh-ul Hind

• Alberuni’s Kitab ul Hind or Tarikh-ul Hind is a comprehensive survey of Indian life based on his studies and observations made in India between 1017 and 1030. The book is known for its simplicity and clarity, divided into 80 chapters covering subjects such as religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws, and metrology.
• Al-Biruni extensively quotes from a vast corpus of Sanskrit literature, including works by Patanjali, the Gita, Puranas, and Samkhya philosophy. Each chapter follows a distinctive structure, starting with a question, providing a description based on Sanskrit traditions, and concluding with a comparison to other cultures.
• As an authentic primary source, the Kitab ul Hind offers valuable insights into the socio-religious conditions of India during Mahmud of Ghazni’s era. It presents a scholarly analysis of Hindu social and religious institutions, highlighting their rich cultural heritage, including advancements in science and literature.
• Al-Biruni’s approach was characterized by a modern scientific attitude and sympathetic insight, devoid of religious prejudices. Unlike the prevalent Puranic traditions or the West Asian tarikh tradition, his work is critical and encompasses various aspects of Indian society, religion, and science.
• He provides a dispassionate account of Indian weaknesses and socio-political shortcomings that contributed to their defeat and humiliation at the hands of invaders. His critical assessments of Indian customs, festivals, and rites are particularly intriguing. Al-Biruni observed that the heavy reliance on tradition hindered genuine intellectual pursuits and that learning and scientific spirit were subordinate to religion.
• He attributed the decline of Indian science to the arrogance and growing insularity of the Brahmins. To gain a deeper understanding of Hindu thought and religion, Al-Biruni learned Sanskrit and extensively studied Sanskrit texts. He quoted from the Bhagavad Gita, Vishnu Purana, Kapila’s Sankhya, and the works of Patanjali, and he translated several Sanskrit texts into Arabic.
• His research methodology was innovative, combining written and oral sources, and his work exhibits elements of scientific historiography. Al-Biruni emphasized the importance of critically examining sources and recording facts without prejudgments.
• Despite his critical stance, Al-Biruni condemned Mahmud Ghazni’s destructive activities and maintained objectivity in his assessments. He expressed his objectives clearly, aiming to provide a historic record of facts and present Hindu theories alongside Greek theories for comparative understanding.
• Driven by scientific and intellectual curiosity, Al-Biruni sought to comprehend the factors influencing Indian thought processes. He analyzed the historical context of Hindu-Muslim relations, explaining the suspicions and animosities that arose due to historical events, including destructive attacks on Hindu cities and the enslavement of Hindus by Islamic armies.
• Al-Biruni aimed to foster dialogue between Hindus and Muslims, emphasizing the necessity of understanding intricate subjects through mutual connection. His interest in other religious traditions surpassed the common tendency of his time, and he eventually gained the acceptance of Hindu scholars.
• Through his extensive studies and interactions with Hindu scholars, Al-Biruni became proficient in Sanskrit and translated various fields of knowledge from 11th-century India into Arabic. His comparative studies of religions, including Islam and Hinduism, reflect his desire to establish connections and understand the differing thought processes of these cultures.

Some scholars argue that Al-Biruni wrote with sympathy towards Indians, recognizing their shared suffering under Mahmud Ghazni. He perceived history as the unfolding of God’s divine plan through prophets and believed that both sciences and history aimed at uncovering the truth.

Indian Society

Alberuni's Observations on Indian Society:
Alberuni, in his work "Kitab al-Hind," provides a detailed account of the caste system and social structure in Indian society.

Caste-Ridden Society

Chatuh-varna System:

• Alberuni describes the origin of the four varnas (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras) based on the Purusha Sukta hymns.
• The Brahmanas were created from the head of Brahma, the Kshatriyas from his shoulders and hands, the Vaishyas from his thighs, and the Sudras from his feet.
• The varnas do not live together and must eat in separate groups.
• Each individual must have their own food, as sharing is forbidden.

Antyaja Castes:

• Alberuni lists eight antyaja castes below the Sudras, who are not part of the Chatuh-varna but are associated with specific crafts or professions.
• These crafts include shoemaking, juggling, basket making, sailing, fishing, hunting, and weaving.
• The antyaja castes lived near but outside the villages and towns of the four varnas.

Untouchables:

• Alberuni mentions several untouchable castes, such as Bhodhatu, Bhedas, Chandala, Doma, and Hodi.
• These castes were engaged in dirty work, like cleaning villages, and were considered outcasts, often thought to be the illegitimate children of a Sudra father and a Brahman mother.

Attaining Moksha:

• There were differing views among Hindus about which castes could attain moksha.
• Some believed only Brahmanas and Kshatriyas could achieve moksha as they were the only ones capable of learning the Vedas.
• Others, according to Hindu philosophers, believed that moksha was attainable by all castes and the entire human race.

Comparison with Other Societies:

• Alberuni compared the Indian caste system with social divisions in ancient Persia, where four social categories were recognized.
• He noted that social divisions were not unique to India.
• However, he pointed out that within Islam, all men were considered equal, differing only in their piety.
• Alberuni disapproved of the concept of untouchability.

Absence of Significant Differences between Vaishyas and Sudras:

• Alberuni observed that the Vaishyas were deteriorating to the status of Sudras by the 11th century.
• He noted the lack of significant differences between the two groups, as they lived together and mixed in the same households.
• Over time, Vaishyas were treated almost like Sudras, both virtually and legally.

Alliance between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas:

• Alberuni indirectly referred to the alliance between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas as a practical arrangement.

Closed Society:

• Alberuni noted the closed nature of Indian society, where travel to distant places was frowned upon by Brahmins.
• Brahmins had fixed territories within which they could live, and Hindus were generally not allowed to enter Turkish lands.
• This was part of a broader 'feudal localism' that restricted connections between different regions of the country.
• Alberuni observed that Indians had a false sense of superiority and believed in their uniqueness in terms of country, nation, king, religion, and science.
• He criticized the insularity of Indians, who were reluctant to share knowledge and ideas, even among their own people.
• He argued that this insularity made India vulnerable to disruption by foreign invaders such as the Turks.

Stagnant Knowledge:

• Alberuni lamented visiting India during a period of intellectual decline.
• While he acknowledged the rich heritage of past knowledge in fields like astronomy and mathematics, he described the 11th-century Indian knowledge as confused and lacking logical order.
• He compared Indian mathematical and astronomical knowledge to a mix of pearls and sour dates, highlighting the disarray in their scientific methods.

Social Evils:

• Alberuni pointed out various social evils in Indian society, such as child marriage, sati, and the low status of women, particularly widows.
• He noted that Hindus married at a very young age.
• Widows had limited options after their husbands died: either to remain widows for life or to commit sati, the latter being more common due to the mistreatment of widows.

Indian Customs and Manners:

• Alberuni vividly described Indian customs, manners, and festivals, noting significant differences from his own country.
• He found some customs to be monstrous, such as the way people preserved their moustaches, allowed their nails to grow long, and disposed of earthen plates.
• He also observed that Hindus had red teeth due to chewing arecanuts with betel leaves and chalk, and that men wore turbans, trousers, and even female garments, and took advice from women in various matters.
• These customs sometimes amused and horrified Alberuni.

Indian Festivals:

• Alberuni listed important Indian festivals, noting that many were celebrated primarily by women and children.

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Religion and Religious Beliefs & Practices

• Alberuni extensively references various Hindu texts such as the Patanjali, Gita, Puranas, and Samkhya philosophy to explore the Hindu belief in God. He notes that Hindus view God as one, eternal, and without a beginning or end.
• He observes a distinction in beliefs between the educated and uneducated classes. The educated class seeks to understand abstract concepts and define general principles, while the uneducated class is content with accepted rules without delving into details.
• Alberuni criticizes the uneducated class for their views on God, considering them abominable, but acknowledges that similar errors exist in other religious traditions. He argues that the belief in multiple gods is vulgar and characteristic of the uneducated. Educated Hindus, on the other hand, believe in one eternal God, considering His existence as fundamental to everything that exists.
• He summarizes the Hindu definition of God as Isvara, meaning self-sufficient and benevolent, who gives without receiving. Hindus perceive unity as a plurality of things, with God's existence being real because everything exists through Him.
• Alberuni also outlines differing Hindu opinions on philosophical concepts such as action and agent. According to Hindu belief, spirits or souls are identical in substance but differ in individual characters and manners due to the bodies they are united with.

Concept of Paradise and Hell:

• He discusses in detail the Hindu concepts of paradise and hell. The term "loka," meaning paradise, includes various realms such as "nagarloka" (world of serpents, a type of hell), narakloka, and patala" (world of men). He cites the Vishnu Purana to explain the Hindu tradition of numerous hells, each with specific qualities, names, and designated for different sins.
• Hindus view swarloka (paradise) as a higher state where a person experiences bliss due to past good deeds, while migration through plants and animals is seen as a lower stage for punishment.

Concept of Moksha

• He draws an intriguing parallel between Patanjali's definition of 'Moksha' and the Sufi concept of 'knowing,' being, and attaining the 'state of knowledge.' Sufis also believe in two souls within a human being: an eternal one, unchanging and unaffected, and a human soul subject to change.

Transmigration of Soul:

• Alberuni also learned about the Hindu concept of transmigration of the soul, explaining that Indians believe every action in this life will be rewarded or punished in the next, with final emancipation achievable only through true knowledge. He labels these Indian beliefs as narrow-mindedness.
• Having studied Hindu religious philosophy and institutions meticulously, Alberuni found it easy to identify the trinity of deities and the philosophy of the Upanishads.

Indian Festivals:

• Alberuni lists important Indian festivals without much commentary, mentioning dates like 2nd Chaitra (a Kashmiri festival), Guru tritiya, Vasanta, etc. He notes that most festivals are predominantly celebrated by women and children.

Indian Polity

• Although Al-Biruni's work did not primarily focus on political events in India, it still provides some insights into political matters. He records the hostility between the Muslim Turkish invaders and the Indians for the first time, expressing regret over the widespread destruction caused by invasions and the migration of learned individuals to the east.
• He accurately dates the conquest of Somnath by Sultan Mahmud and notes its location and the legend behind the temple's construction. Al-Biruni also documents the history of the Hindushahi dynasty, which suffered greatly from Mahmud's invasions. He mentions various dynasties, including those of Kashmir, Kalchuris, and even Rajendra Chola.

Science in India

• Alberuni was among the first to conduct a thorough study of Hindu sciences and scientific literature. He was particularly impressed by Indian knowledge in fields such as astronomy, metrology, arithmetic, alchemy, and geography, as documented in his work Kitab al-Hind.
• While he sometimes criticized Indian scientific knowledge, he also offered praise. Upon arriving in India, Al-Biruni already possessed knowledge of Indian astronomy, having studied Arabic translations of Sanskrit texts. He acknowledged the Indians' proficiency in astronomy and mathematics but noted their tendency to intertwine science with popular religious beliefs.

Astronomy

• Alberuni observed that the science of astronomy was particularly popular among Indians due to its various connections with religion. Consequently, he emphasized that a good Indian astronomer should also be a skilled astrologer.
• He referenced works such as Varaha Mihira's Panchasiddhantika(6th century), Brahmagupta's Brahma Siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka(7th century), Aryabhatta I's Dasagitika, and the works of Aryabhatta II.
• He described the composition of the Earth and Heavens as per Hindu sculptures and elaborated on the planets, their motions, the 12 Zodiac signs, and the phases of the moon. Indian astronomers divided the zodiac into 27 or 28 lunar stations or nakshatras, providing the number of stars in each nakshatra along with its distance from the sun.
• He noted that Indian astronomers understood the real causes of solar and lunar eclipses and mentioned two methods from Khandakhadyaka for determining the time of an eclipse.
• He also discussed the calculation of equinoxes and referred to Brahmasphutasiddhanta concerning the revolution of the sun, moon, and planets. Various astronomical terms such as kalpa and adhimasa were analyzed by him.
• He was inspired by Indian scholars who suggested that the Earth must be ellipsoidal in shape, with an undiscovered continent at the south pole. He acknowledged that the Earth's rotation around the sun was the only explanation for the variations in daylight hours by latitude, seasons, and the relative positions of the moon and stars.

He compared Greek astronomy with Indian astronomy and discussed the five standard books on Indian astronomy known as Siddhantas. These include:

• Surya Siddhanta
• Vasishtha Siddhanta
• Pulisa Siddhanta
• Romaka Siddhanta
• Brahma Siddhanta

Meterology

• In the field of meterology, Alberuni enumerates contemporary weights and measures such as Suvarna, tola, Masha, Yava, Kala, Pada, Kudava, Prastha, Adhaka, Dropa, and Surpa. He praises the Indian systems of weights, measures, and distance measurement.
• An interesting comparison is made between tola and the Arabic Mithkal, with Alberuni calculating the equivalent weights of the two.

Arithmetic

• In arithmetic, Alberuni focuses on the Indian order of numbers, mentioning the eighteen orders of numbers as listed in Sanskrit literature. He quotes the Indian astronomer Brahmagupta regarding the science of numerical writing. Brahmagupta wrote:

“If you want to write one, express it by everything, which is unique, as the earth; two by everything which is double, as, e.g., black and white; three by everything which is three-fold.”

Chemistry

• Alberuni addresses chemistry mainly in the context of alchemy (rasavidya). While he criticizes many concepts in this field, he acknowledges the medicinal efficacy of certain metals and chemicals. He provides accounts of three alchemists: Bhanuvasa, Nagarjuna, and Vvadi.
• He had some understanding of Ayurveda and was familiar with the Charak Samhita, although not with the Sushruta Samhita. As a result, he does not comment on surgical practices.

Mathematics

• Regarding the Indian system of mathematics, Al-Biruni notes that numerical signs vary in shape and style across different regions of India. He mentions that the decimal system, the symbol for zero, and higher order numbers were all known to the Indians.
• He also refers to the value of pi (π) as per Brahmagupta and Aryabhatta.

• Indian Alphabets

• Alberuni observes the various India alphabets and their differences in shapes and styles across different regions.

Criticism of Science in India

• Despite recognizing the Hindus as excellent philosophers and proficient mathematicians and astrologers, Alberuni considered his own knowledge superior. He often compared Greek theories, which he deemed akin to Indian knowledge, and emphasized their strict scientific nature in contrast to Hindu theories.
• Alberuni equated Indian knowledge of alchemy (Rasayana) with witchcraft and viewed Hindus as practitioners of sorcery. He criticized their insularity, arrogance, and self-conceit, stating that Hindus believed there was no country, nation, king, religion, or science superior to theirs. He noted their haughtiness, claiming that if one mentioned any science or scholar from Khorasan or Persia, they would regard the speaker as both ignorant and deceitful.
• He attributed the decline of Indian science to the arrogance and growing insularity of the Brahmins. He condemned the hypocrisy of Brahmin scholars who, despite knowing the scientific explanations for various natural phenomena, chose to mislead the masses and keep them in ignorance and superstition.
• While he did not shy away from critiquing what he deemed wrong and impractical in Hindu practices, he also acknowledged their intellectual achievements. Whenever he encountered something commendable in science or practical life, he presented it to his readers with genuine praise.
• He admired the construction of ponds at holy bathing places, stating, “In this, they have attained a high degree of art, so that our people (the Muslims), when they see them, wonder at them and are unable to describe them, much less construct anything like them.”

Criticism of Indian Literature

• Al-Biruni believed that the available literature on Hinduism was not only insufficient but also misleading, which he considered a more serious violation of truthfulness than being untruthful. He complained that everything existing on this subject in literature was second-hand information, copied from one another, and a mixture of materials never critically examined.
• To support his argument, Al-Biruni referred to the Qur'an and the Bible. He emphasized that the Qur'an advises speaking the truth, even if it goes against oneself.
• Al-Biruni criticized Indian scribes for carelessly corrupting Indian documents while copying older texts. Although he admired Hindu civilization, he was critical of the attitude of scholars and the coexistence of scientific awareness and ignorance among Hindus.
• He pointed out various lies and fabrications intertwined with almost all historical traditions and records, particularly when it came to analyzing and interpreting Indian texts. He reproached Hindus for their lack of interest in history.

Indian Legal System

Al-Biruni made significant efforts to comprehend the Indian legal system. He meticulously observed every practical aspect of the legal system and highlighted the distinctions between these practicalities and the legal theories as presented in authoritative texts like the Manusmriti.

Geography:

• Al-Biruni extensively drew upon the Puranic tradition to explore Indian knowledge of geography. Through his travels, he witnessed various geographic features firsthand, allowing him to formulate theories about their interconnections.

Madhyadesa:

• Al-Biruni begins by discussing the Indian concept of Madhyadesa, referring to the area around Kannauj, which is considered the middle of the realm.
• He notes that Madhyadesa has historically been an important political center, as it was once the residence of famous heroes and kings.
• He provides details about the distances between Kannauj and various parts of the country, including Mathura, Prayaga(Allahabad),Banaras, Pataliputra, Kashmir, and Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni also offers a detailed account of the routes to Nepal, Tibet, Malwa, Gujarat, Northwestern India, and certain parts of Southern India.
• He makes references to the islands of South-East Asia and those in the Chinese Sea.
• Al-Biruni discusses the Varshakala(monsoon season) in India and lists various rivers as mentioned in the Vayu-Purana and Matysya-Purana.
• He explains the great knots of the mythical Mount Meru, from where these rivers are believed to flow.
• For instance, rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri are said to flow from Sahya, while rivers such as Mahanadi, Narmada, and Chitrakuta flow from Riksha.

Soil and Fossil Studies:

• By analyzing different types of soil particles in the Ganges River from its source to the Bay of Bengal, Al-Biruni developed theories about erosion and the shaping of landforms, particularly emphasizing the role of water in this process.
• He discovered fossils of ancient sea creatures in the Himalayan Mountains, which isolated India from the rest of the world. This led him to conclude that the Himalayas were once underwater and have since risen to their current position over millions of years.

Limitations

Al-Biruni faced several barriers that hindered his understanding of India.

• Language Barrier: Al-Biruni found Sanskrit to be so distinct from Arabic and Persian that translating ideas and concepts between these languages was challenging.
• Religious Differences: The divergence in religious beliefs and practices posed another barrier to his understanding.
• Insularity of the Local Population: He noted the self-absorption and insularity of the local population as a hindrance.

To overcome these challenges, Al-Biruni relied heavily on the works of Brahmanas, often quoting passages from the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the writings of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, and similar texts to gain insights into Indian society.

Faulty Reading of Sources:

• At times, Al-Biruni misinterpreted original concepts due to misunderstandings and faulty readings of Indian texts.

Ignoring Non-Sanskrit Texts:

• He predominantly relied on Sanskrit texts for information on society, religion, and science in India, overlooking other Indian texts written in languages such as Prakrit, Pali, and other regional languages.

Limited Audience:

• His audience primarily comprised the upper castes of Indian society, which limited his perspective and understanding of aspects like the varna order from the viewpoint of the lower classes.

Indirect Observations:

• Although Al-Biruni's work was compiled around 1030 A.D., the specifics of his field of investigation, including the territory covered and his sources, remain uncertain.
• He rarely mentioned the locations or timings of his visits, and the Kitab-al-Hind lacks positive evidence in certain instances.
• Differentiating between historical events and legendary ones poses challenges in his work.
• The definition of his field of investigation is crucial for using the Kitab al-Hind as a historical source effectively.
• Al-Biruni's mobility was confined to the conquered boundaries of Mahmud's empire, necessitating a distinction between the conquered and unconquered regions.
• Scholars generally believe that his travels were limited to the confines of the Ghaznavid dominion.

Kashmir Valley:

• The Kashmir Valley was not part of the Ghaznavid empire, as Al-Biruni explicitly mentions two places he could not reach: Kashmir and Varanasi.
• Despite this, he provides extensive information about the
  Kashmir Valley, including its geography, ethnic groups, and social features.
• Al-Biruni names cities and mountains in Kashmir, lists itineraries leading to the valley, and describes the customs of its inhabitants.
• He is aware of the alphabets and scripts in use in Kashmir and presents detailed accounts of religious practices and astronomy.
• The Kashmir Valley is described in greater detail than any other region in the Kitab al-Hind.

The accuracy and amount of information provided by Al-Biruni about the Kashmir Valley suggest that its isolation needs to be reevaluated and that his knowledge did not come from direct observation.

Methods of Information Gathering

• Al-Biruni gathered information through interactions and mobility between different regions of India, facilitated by the circulation of written and oral data.
• Intellectual exchanges were encouraged by various Indian dynasties.
• Direct observation was not the primary method for Al-Biruni; he relied more on oral informants and written sources, especially in the Kashmir Valley.
• In other parts of the Kitab al-Hind, Al-Biruni cites informants such as Jivasarman and Sripala, who provided information about Kashmir and Multan, respectively.
• He had access to a large number of written sources, including the Vedas, the Smriti of Manu, and various Puranas.
• He does not mention the authors of his written sources, except for a few, suggesting that he obtained books from places he had not visited.
• The majority of the information in the Kitab al-Hind seems to be based on firsthand and secondhand literature, primarily from the Puranas, the Gita, and other texts related to geography, religion, culture, history, and philosophy.
• Al-Biruni's work is based on a broader range of literature compared to his predecessors, who relied more on observations and hearsay.