Chalukyas of Kalyani (Western Chalukyas) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Chalukyas of Kalyani

The Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as the Western Chalukyas, emerged after the Rashtrakutas, who had dominated the Deccan and Central India since the mid-8th century, began to decline in the late 10th century.

Rise to Power:

• The Rashtrakutas, under leaders like Krishna III, had initially eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami, who claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas.
• As the Rashtrakuta Empire weakened, the Chalukyas of Badami, under Someshvara I, capitalized on the chaos and established a new empire, moving their capital to Kalyani.
• However, the claim of the Kalyani Chalukyas being direct descendants of the Badami Chalukyas is debated. Some historians, like B.R. Gopal, suggest they were an indigenous Kannada family with agricultural and military backgrounds, and that the term "Chalukya" is of archaic Kannada origin.

Founding of the Dynasty:

• The dynasty was founded by Tailapa II, who started as a feudatory under the Rashtrakuta Krishna III.
• After Krishna III's death, Tailapa II gained enough strength to overthrow Karka II and declare himself an independent monarch, ruling from AD 973 to 997.
• He is credited with military victories over regions like Chedi, Orissa, and Kuntala, and is said to have defeated Munja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa.

Dominance and Cultural Influence:

• The Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani(modern Basavakalyan) until the late 12th century, playing a crucial role in the politics of the Deccan and South India.
• They are distinct from the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, who were contemporaneous but separate.
• The Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore engaged in fierce conflicts over control of the fertile Vengi region. The Eastern Chalukyas, distant relatives of the Western Chalukyas and related to the Cholas through marriage, sided with the Cholas during these disputes.
• Despite these conflicts, the period of the Western Chalukyas from AD 973 to 1200 was marked by cultural and political vibrancy, following the imperial traditions of the earlier Vatapi Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.
• Numerous lithic records, copper plates, and literary texts from this period, such as the Vikramankadevacharita, Manasoltasa, and others, provide valuable insights into the history and culture of the Kalyani Chalukyas.

A Brief History of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

Taila and His Successors:

• Taila was succeeded by his son Satyasraya, who claimed to have defeated a Chola invader.
• Satyasraya was followed by Vikramaditya V, Jayasimha I, and Jagadekamalla.

Jagadekamalla's Achievements:

• Jagadekamalla claimed victories over Paramara Bhoja of Malwa, the ruler of Chedi, and Rajendra Chola.

Somesvara I and the Rise of Kalyana:

• Jagadekamalla was succeeded by Somesvara I, who ruled from AD 1042 to 1068 with titles of Ahavamalla and Trailokyamalla.
• Bilhana, in his work Vikramankadevacharita, noted that Somesvara I built and made Kalyana his capital.
• V. Venkataraya Sastry suggested that Kalyana existed during Jayasimha II's reign.
• Shankaracharya mentioned Kalyana as a great Devipitha, indicating its significance.

Conflicts with the Cholas:

• Somesvara I engaged in conflicts with the Cholas, claiming victories, while Chola epigraphs disputed these claims, stating defeats for Somesvara I at Koppam in AD 1055 and Kudalasangamam in AD 1061.
• Somesvara I expanded his territory, accepting the supremacy of Dharavarsha, the Nagavamsi ruler of Chakrakuta, and occupying Kosala and Kalinga.

Somesvara II and Internal Conflicts:

• After Somesvara I, his son Somesvara II ruled until AD 1076.
• Somesvara I initially wanted his son Vikramaditya to succeed him, but after Vikramaditya refused, Somesvara II became the ruler.
• Strained relations between the brothers led to a civil war, with Vikramaditya ultimately emerging as the victor.

Vikramaditya VI and the Chalukya Vikrama Era:

• Vikramaditya VI, known as Tribhuvanamalla, ruled from AD 1076 to 1126.
• He started the Chalukya Vikrama era and continued wars against the Cholas.
• Under his rule, the Western Chalukyas expanded, contending with the Cholas and reaching their peak, ruling over most of the Deccan.
• Vikramaditya VI led successful military campaigns as far east as Bihar and Bengal.
• K.A.N. Sastri argued that Vikramaditya VI and his Chola contemporary recognized their parity in strength, leading to a suspension of hostilities, though Vikramaditya continued to assert his authority over Vengi.
• Vikramaditya VI subdued the Hoysalas and renewed hostilities against Vengi, gaining control over Vengi by AD 1118 or 1119.

Patronage and Succession:

• Vikramaditya VI patronized Bilhana and Vignaneswara.
• He was succeeded by his son Somesvara III, who ruled from AD 1126 to 1135.
• Somesvara III, known as Bhulokamalla and Sarvajna Chakravarti, started the Bhulokamalla era.
• He was a peace-loving ruler and authored Manasollasa and Vikramankabhyudaya in Kannada.

Jagadekamalla II and Tailapa III:

• Somesvara III was succeeded by Jagadekamalla II, who ruled from AD 1135 to 1151.
• Jagadekamalla II was followed by his son Tailapa III, who ruled from AD 1151 to 1163.

Decline of Chalukyan Power:

• Tailapa III was a weak and incompetent ruler, and the Kalachuri chieftain Bijjala gradually usurped power by AD 1157.
• Tailapa III died while fighting the Kakatiyas.
• Somesvara IV, son of Tailapa III, ascended the Chalukya throne but failed to maintain power, being defeated in AD 1190 by Hoysala Ballala II.
• The death of Vikramaditya VI marked the decline of Chalukyan power, with subordinates like the Kakatiyas, Yadavas, Hoysalas, and Kalachuris preparing to declare independence.
• The Chalukyas of Kalyani disappeared from political power by AD 1190 during the reign of Somesvara IV.

Polity

• The Chalukyas of Kalyani had a hereditary monarchy with the king as the powerful head of state.
• They used titles like Samastabhuvanasraya and Vijayaditya, and their symbol was a boar representing Lord Vishnu's Varahavatara.
• Chalukyan queens and family members, like Queen Lakshmidevi, actively participated in governance.
• The Manasollasa described minister qualities, with most posts being hereditary and suggesting 7-8 ministers.
• There were feudal elements with graded political intermediaries and military ranks.
• Administrative divisions included Rashtra, Vishaya, Nadu, Kampana, and Thana.
• Communication channels between rulers and subjects were collective, as seen in copper plate charters.

Social Life

• Varnasarama Model: During the Chalukyas of Kalyani era, social life was organized around the traditional Varnasarama system, which classifies society based on varnas(social categories) and ashramas(life stages).
• Caste and Occupation: While caste was universal and hereditary, the link between caste and occupation was not strictly enforced, allowing some flexibility in job roles.
• Role of Women: Women from higher societal strata were actively involved in social and administrative roles. Epigraphical records from this period highlight the contributions of women, both from royal families and those of lower rank, in various fields such as administration, religion, and culture.
• Royal Women in Administration: Contemporary records indicate that some royal women, like princess Akkadevi(sister of King Jayasimha II), participated in administrative and military affairs, demonstrating the significant roles women played in governance.
• Veerashaivaism: The rise of Veerashaivaism was a significant movement that challenged the existing Hindu caste system, even though it retained royal support.
• Women in the Fine Arts: Records mention the involvement of women in fine arts. For instance,Chalukya queen Chandala Devi and Kalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi were noted for their talents in dance and music.
• Vachana Poets: The contributions of women poets in the Vachana literary tradition were significant, with works from the 12th-century Veerashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi being particularly well-known for her devotion to the bhakti movement.
• Widowhood and Sati: Inscriptions from this period suggest a public acceptance of widowhood, indicating that while Sati was practiced, it was voluntary.
• Eating Habits: Dietary practices varied among communities, with Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists, and Shaivas being strictly vegetarian, while other groups consumed various types of meat.
• Leisure Activities: Indoor amusements included wrestling matches(Kusti), animal fights like cock and ram fights, and gambling. Outdoor pastimes included horse racing. Festivals and fairs were common, and entertainment was provided by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists, and musicians.
• Education and Hospitals: Schools and hospitals were established near temples. Young men were trained in singing in schools associated with monasteries such as Hindu Matha, Jain Palli, and Buddhist Vihara. Education was imparted in the local language and Sanskrit, with higher learning centers called Brahmapuri, Ghatika, or Agrahara. Teaching Sanskrit was primarily the domain of Brahmins, who received royal support for their work.
• Subjects Taught: The number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen, with Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi), and Philosophy (Anvikshiki) being among the most popular subjects for royal students.

Economy

Agriculture

• The majority of people were engaged in agriculture, and the rulers supported agricultural activities by providing irrigation facilities such as tanks and canals, which enhanced soil fertility.
• Epigraphs mention classifications of cultivated land as wet land, dry land, and garden land, with tax rates varying by area.
• Land was classified as Uttama(best),Madhayama(medium), and Adhama(inferior) based on fertility and yield.
• Private and joint ownership of land existed, and there were noticeable economic disparities among different population segments.
• The living conditions of laborers were tolerable, as there are no records of revolts by landless laborers against wealthy landlords.
• If peasants were dissatisfied, the common practice was to migrate out of the ruler's jurisdiction, depriving him of revenue.

Trade

• Trade and commerce were vital to the economy, with traders organized into autonomous guilds with their own traditions and insignia.
• The 500 Swamis of Ayyavolepura was a prominent merchant guild known for protecting the law of noble merchants.
• Guilds like the Ainurrvar, Valanjiyar, or Nanadesi, particularly from Aihole, were active in regions like Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra, Rayalseema, Telangana, and Kerala, and even overseas in places like Burma, Malaya, and Sumatra.
• The growth of trade and commerce led to the development of market towns in these regions.

Religion

• During this period, there was a general atmosphere of spiritual conciliation where various creeds coexisted with mutual tolerance.
• The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century and the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi marked a decline in Jainism.
• However, locations of Jain worship like Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli continued to be patronized.
• The growth of Virashaivism in Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in Hoysala region coincided with a decline in Jainism, although subsequent kingdoms remained religiously tolerant.
• Virashaiva faith, associated with Basavanna in the 12th century, emphasized a caste-free faith.
• Virashaivas, also known as Lingayats, questioned established societal norms and supported practices like widow remarriage and marriages of older unmarried women, granting more social freedom to women.
• Saivism and Vaishnavism were major branches of present-day Pauranic Dharma of Hinduism, with the worship of deities like Kartikeya.
• Ramanujacharya, a significant figure in
  Vaishnavism, influenced the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana to convert to Vaishnavism, a faith followed by his successors.
• The religious developments during this period had a profound impact on
  culture, literature, and architecture in South India.
• The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy, but Buddhism thrived at Belagave and Dambal.
• Writings and inscriptions from this period do not mention religious conflicts, indicating a smooth religious transition.

Literature

• The Western Chalukya era witnessed significant literary activity in both Kannada and Sanskrit.
• Kannada literature flourished, with Jain scholars writing about Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressing their devotion to God through Vachanas, with nearly three hundred contemporary Vachana poets, including thirty women poets.
• Early works by Brahmin writers focused on epics, Puranas, and Vedas, while secular literature covered subjects like romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, and encyclopedia.
• Notable Kannada scholars included Ranna, Nagavarma II, Durgasimha, and Basavanna.
• Ranna, patronized by kings Tailapa II and Satyashraya, was the "Emperor among poets" with works like Saahasabheema Vijayam and Ajitha purana.
• Nagavarma II made significant contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects, and his works are standard authorities in poetry, prosody, grammar, and vocabulary.
• Several works on medicine were produced, including Karnataka Kalyana Karaka.
• Unique poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas emerged, expressing devotion to God in simple poems to appeal to the masses.
• In Sanskrit, poet Bilhana wrote Vikramankadeva Charita, recounting the life and achievements of King Vikramaditya VI.
• King Someshvara III authored Manasollasa, an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering various subjects like medicine, magic, veterinary science, and more.
• Someshwara III also wrote a biography of his father Vikramaditya VI, detailing geography and people of Karnataka.
• Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara gained fame for his legal literature Mitakshara, a treatise on law based on earlier writings.
• Mitakshara, a commentary on Yajnavalkya, is widely accepted and is an important legal work in modern India.
• Literary works related to music and musical instruments included Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara, and Sangita Ratnakara.

Art and Architecture Under the Chalukyas of Kalyani

Art Patronage:

• The Chalukyas of Kalyani were significant patrons of fine arts.
• An epigraph from AD 1045 mentions the construction of a Natakasala, or theatre, within a Jaina temple premises.
• Epigraphic records indicate that musicians, florists, drummers, and dancers received grants for their maintenance.
• K.A.N. Sastri suggests that temples, after the court, were major promoters of fine arts based on epigraphical evidence.
• Temples promoted various art forms such as architecture, sculpture in stone and metal, and painting.
• An inscription from AD 1085 in Nagai mentions a great sculptor named Nagoja, also known as Kandarana Vidyadhirajam, a master engraver, along with other references to sculptures and engravings.

Architectural Contributions

Temple Architecture:

• The Western Chalukya dynasty was instrumental in the evolution of Deccan architecture, developing a transitional style that bridged the early Chalukya style and the later Hoysala architecture.
• This architectural style, sometimes referred to as Karnata Dravida or Gadag style, was characterized by ornate temples built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab region, particularly in the present-day Gadag district of Karnataka.
• During the 12th century, the dynasty’s temple construction reached its peak, with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, particularly in central Karnataka.
• Notable examples include:
• Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi
• Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti
• Kallesvara Temple at Bagali
• Mahadeva Temple at Itagi
• Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi

Mahadeva Temple at Itagi:

• The Mahadeva Temple, built in the 12th century, is renowned for its intricate sculptures and decorative details.
• The finely crafted carvings on the walls, pillars, and towers exemplify the Chalukya taste and cultural aesthetics.
• An inscription near the temple honors it as the “Emperor of Temples” (devalaya chakravarti) and credits its construction to Mahadeva, a commander under king Vikramaditya VI.

Kedareswara Temple at Balligavi:

• The Kedareswara Temple showcases a blend of Chalukya and Hoysala architectural styles.
• The vimana, or tower over the shrine, represents a compromise between the early Chalukya’s plain stepped style and the Hoysala’s ornate finish.
• Western Chalukya architects are credited with innovations such as lathe-turned pillars and the use of soapstone (chloritic schist) as a primary building and sculptural material, a practice later adopted by Hoysala temples.

Architectural Innovations:

• The Western Chalukyas popularized the use of decorative Kirtimukha (demon faces) in their sculptures.
• Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom were often Chalukyan architects from regions like Balligavi.
• The artistic wall decor and general sculptural idiom were rooted in Dravidian architecture.
• Besides temples, the dynasty is noted for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni), which served as ritual bathing places, some of which are well-preserved in Lakkundi.
• These stepped well designs influenced later Hoysala and Vijayanagara architecture.

Language and Literature

• Kannada was predominantly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs, with some historians estimating that ninety percent of inscriptions were in Kannada and the remainder in Sanskrit.
• King Vikramaditya VI is noted for the highest number of inscriptions in Kannada before the 12th century. Inscriptions were typically made on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates (Tamarashasana).
• This period saw the rise of Kannada as a literary and poetic language, significantly influenced by the Virashaiva (Lingayat) devotional movement, which expressed devotion through simple lyrics called Vachanas.
• At the administrative level, Kannada was used to document land grants, including locations and rights. Bilingual inscriptions often featured Sanskrit for titles, genealogy, king’s origin myths, and benedictions, while Kannada detailed grant terms.
• Chronicles known as Vamshavalis were composed in Sanskrit to record historical accounts of dynasties.
• Kannada literature flourished with secular writings, while Sanskrit was used for poetry, grammar, lexicons, manuals, commentaries, prose fiction, and drama.

Notable works include:

• Chandombudhi and Karnataka Kadambari by Nagavarma I
• Rannakanda by Ranna
• Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha
• Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya
• Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja
• Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II