Mughal Architecture | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The Mughal period in India was marked by a surge in cultural activities, particularly in architecture, painting, music, and literature.

Cultural Fusion:

• The Mughals brought with them Turko-Mongol cultural traditions, which blended with the rich existing cultural traditions of India.
• During the Sultanate period and the provincial kingdoms of the 14th and 15th centuries, there were diverse cultural developments.
• The Mughals absorbed these varied cultural traditions, leading to a culture that was a collective contribution from different ethnic groups, regions, and faiths.
• This resulting culture can be broadly termed as Indian or national.

Revitalization of Indo-Islamic Architecture:

• The establishment of Mughal rule revitalized Indo-Islamic architecture, merging prevalent architectural forms with those from Central Asia and Persia.
• The introduction of the arcuate technique in the 13th century, which involved covering spaces with domes and using arches for entrances, laid the foundation for a new architectural style.
• The Mughals blended the trabeate (post-and-lintel) and arcuate techniques, resulting in a distinct architectural style.

Mughal Architectural Style:

• The Mughal architectural style took shape during Akbar's reign, although the foundational principles were established by Babur and Humayun.
• The Mughals constructed impressive forts, palaces, gates, and public buildings, including sarais (inns), hamams (baths), mosques, and baolis (water tanks or wells).
• They also designed formal gardens with running water, which was a unique feature of Mughal architecture, even in their palaces and pleasure resorts.

Mughal Gardens

• Mughal Gardens are a type of garden created by the Mughals in a style influenced by Persian and Timurid gardens.
• These gardens are known for their rectilinear layouts within walled enclosures, featuring elements like pools, fountains, and canals.
• Some of the most famous Mughal gardens include:
• Char Bagh gardens at the Taj Mahal, Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, Delhi, and Kashmir, and Pinjore Garden in Haryana.
• Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, had a deep appreciation for gardens and established several in the areas around Agra and Lahore.
• Although many Mughal gardens have not survived, a few notable ones that have are:Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, Shalimar garden at Lahore, Pinjore garden near Kalka, and Arambagh(now known as Ram Bagh) near Agra.
• These remaining terraced gardens offer insight into the Mughal vision of garden design.

Babur

• Due to time constraints, Babur could not engage in large architectural projects. However, he showed significant interest in secular works, such as gardens and pavilions, although very little of this work remains today.
• For Babur, the key elements of architecture were regularity and symmetry, which he felt were lacking in Indian buildings. His dissatisfaction was likely aimed at the Lodi structures he encountered in Lahore, Delhi, and Agra.
• Structures attributed to Babur include mosques built in 1526 in Panipat, Sambhal, and Ayodhya. However, these buildings lack architectural significance as they were adaptations of earlier designs and do not reflect his architectural vision.
• Babur's secular works primarily involved the creation of gardens and pavilions. Notable examples include:
• Garden of Dholpur: Only the excavated ruins of this garden are still visible.
• Ram Bagh and Zahra Bagh at Agra: These gardens have undergone significant alterations over time.
• In the Baburnama, Babur claims credit for several pavilions; however, none of these pavilions have survived to the present day.

Humayun

The surviving buildings have the same inconsequential character as that of Babur.

• Two mosques from among several other buildings erected during the first phase of his reign survive. both are devoid of any architectural marit.
• One of these lies in ruinous condition at Agra.
• The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar).
• There is no notable building from Humayun 2nd term.

Humayun’s tomb:

• This building is a landmark in the development of the Mughal style of architecture.
• This structure was inspired by the Persian culture.
• Constructed during Akbar reign (work began in 1564), under the patronage of his widow Hamida Bano Begum.
• Architect: Mirak Mirza Ghiyas (a native of Persia).
• He brought many Persian craftsmen to Delhi to work on this structure.
• The tomb has thus become representative of an Indian rendition of a Persian concept.
• Though it built during Akbar reign but because of peculiar features, it has been treated separately.
• One of the earliest specimens of the garden enclosure (Garden tomb).
• It is raised high on an arcaded sandstone platform.
• The tomb is octagonal in plan and is crowed by a high dome. which is actually a double dome.
• The method of making double dome was practised in Western Asia before it was imported into India.

Akbar

• The real phase of Mughal architecture began with Akbar.
• Akbar had the means and a strong desire for large-scale construction.
• Like Babur, he had fine aesthetic taste and was personally involved in building projects, sometimes even doing the work himself.
• Akbar aimed to unify the diverse architectural traditions present in the country.
• During his reign, two architectural traditions coexisted:
• Persian Tradition: Influenced by Humayun's experiences at the Persian court.
• The Persian influence is seen in the mausoleum of Humayun, initiated by his widow Haji Begum in 1564 and completed in 1572. This building features:
• Square Design: Made of red sandstone on a high platform.
• White Marble Dome: With a constricted neck, inspired by Timurid architecture but uniquely Indian.
• Double Dome: A Persian feature seen in earlier Indian tombs, enhancing the skyline and interior space.
• Room Arrangement: Separate linked rooms, a Persian influence but also found in earlier Indian buildings.
• Formal Garden: The entire structure set within a large garden, an Indian feature.
• Slender Minarets: A characteristic of Gujarat style.
• Graceful Kiosks: A common feature in Rajasthan.
• Arches and Inlay Work: Adding to the building's aesthetic appeal.
• Akbar’s Reign: Marks the formative period of Mughal architecture, showcasing a fusion of Indo-Islamic styles.
• He promoted a hybrid style that blended foreign and indigenous elements.

Structural Form

• Building Material: Predominantly red sandstone.
• Construction Style: Emphasis on trabeated (horizontal) construction.
• Use of Arches: Arches were primarily decorative rather than structural.
• Dome Design: Dome was of the ‘Lodi’ type, often hollow but not a true double order.
• Pillar Design: Pillars had multifaceted shafts with bracket supports as capitals.
• Decoration: Features bold carvings or inlays, often complemented by vibrant interior patterns.

Building Projects

Phase 1: Early Forts and Palaces:

• Agra Fort: Started in 1565, the Agra Fort featured battlements, crenelated walls, and a distinctive Delhi Gate. Inside, Akbar built over 500 red stone edifices, many of which were later demolished by Shah Jahan.
• Jahangiri Mahal: A fusion of Hindu and Islamic designs, featuring red sandstone, flat roofs, and intricately carved pillars. It drew inspiration from the Man Mandir in Gwalior Fort.
• Lahore Fort: Built during Akbar's reign, it features Alamgiri Gate and Masjidi Gate. The fort at Ajmer was notable for its thick walls, marking the Empire's advancing frontier.

Phase 2: Fatehpur Sikri:Fatehpur Sikri, established between 1571 and 1585, was characterized by its rich red sandstone buildings, traditional trabeate construction, and a lack of overall planning. The complex included both religious and secular structures.

Religious Buildings:

• Jami Masjid: The courtyard features the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti.
• Buland Darwaza: A massive gateway built by Akbar to commemorate his victory in Gujarat, featuring intricate red and yellow sandstone with white marble inlay.
• Tomb of Salim Chishti: Located within the Jami Masjid’s courtyard, noted for its exquisite marble work and lattice screens.

Secular Buildings:

• Palace Complex: Includes the Jodha Bai Palace, likely housing Akbar's Hindu wives, and the Panch Mahal, a unique five-storey structure for the women of the harem.
• Administrative Buildings: Include the diwan-i-khas, where Akbar held private audiences and discussions on different religions, and the diwan-i-am, where he met the general public.
• Ibadat Khana: A house of worship where Akbar laid the foundations of the syncretic faith Din-e-Ilahi.
• Anup Talao: A pool with a central platform used for philosophical debates and musical gatherings.

Architecture Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan

New Features

• During the time of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, marble replaced red sandstone as the dominant material, marking the era known as the "age of marble." This shift brought about significant stylistic changes in architecture.
• The arch evolved into a distinctive form with foliated curves, often featuring nine cusps.
• Marble arcades with engrailed arches became a common architectural feature.
• The dome developed a bulbous shape with a stifled neck, and double domes became increasingly popular.
• Inlaid patterns using colored stones emerged as the primary decorative form.
• During the latter half of Jahangir's reign, a new decorative technique called pietra dura was introduced. In this method, semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz, and cornelian were embedded in marble in graceful foliations, creating intricate and colorful designs.

Jahangir

• Jahangir was a prominent supporter of painting but not particularly known for his architectural contributions.
• His fondness for flowers and animals, evident in the miniature paintings of his era, made him more inclined towards the art of garden layout rather than the construction of grand monuments.
• Jahangir did, however, create Mughal gardens such as the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, along with pavilions along the shores of Dal Lake.
• During his reign, Hindu influences in architecture diminished. His grand mosque in Lahore showcased the Persian style, adorned with enameled tiles.
• In Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, completed in 1628, was constructed entirely of white marble and decorated with pietra dura mosaic.
• Jahangir also commemorated his pet deer with the Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, Pakistan. Following his death, his wife, driven by her deep love for him, built his mausoleum in Lahore.

Major Buildings

• Location: Sikandra, 8 kilometers from Agra on the Delhi road.
• Design: Conceptualized by Akbar himself and initiated during his lifetime, but left unfinished at his death. Later completed by Jahangir with alterations to the original design.
• Architectural Blend: A unique combination of Akbar and Jahangir's architectural styles.
• Garden Setting: The tomb is situated within an enclosed garden.
• Structure: A square, three-story building.
• Gateway: Adorned with painted stucco, colored stone, and marble.
• Materials Used: Red sandstone, stucco-colored stone, and marble.
• Decorative Motifs: Features traditional floral designs, arabesques, calligraphy, and symbols like gaja (elephant), hamsa (swan), padma (lotus), swastika, and chakra.
• Architectural Influence: The tomb's design has inspired several later mausoleums, such as Jahangir's tomb at Shahadara near Lahore and Nur Jahan’s father Mirza Ghiyas Beg's tomb at Agra (Itimadud Daula).

The tomb of Itimadud Daula (1622-28)

• During the latter part of Jahangir's rule, the practice of constructing buildings entirely from marble and adorning the walls with floral patterns made from semi-precious stones began.
• This decorative technique, known as Pietra dura, was employed in the small but elegant tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula, which was built during Jahangir's reign.
• Commissioned by Nur Jahan in honor of her father, Mirza Ghiyas Beg, the tomb signifies a shift in architectural style from the era of Akbar to that of Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
• The evolution from the robust architecture of Akbar to the more delicate and sensual style of the later period is clearly seen in this structure.
• The tomb is designed as a square structure elevated on a low platform and is surrounded by a square garden enclosed by four red sandstone gateways.
• At each corner of the tomb, there are four octagonal minarets topped with graceful cupolas.
• Similar to Akbar's own tomb, which was started by Akbar but completed by Jahangir, this tomb does not feature a dome. Instead, it has a small cloister on the flat roof, decorated with a vibrant design of perforated screens.
• The main tomb is constructed of white marble and is adorned with mosaics and pietra dura decorations.

Shahjahan

• Transition in Materials: Under Shah Jahan, marble replaced red sandstone as the main material for building. The art of inlaying also reached new heights with the use of semiprecious stones, known as pietra dura.
• Architectural Innovations: He introduced bulbous domes and intricate arches in his structures.
• Prolific Building: Unlike his predecessor Jahangir, Shah Jahan was a prolific builder, focusing on elegant monuments rather than massive ones. His reign saw extensive architectural works primarily in marble.
• Shift in Style: The architectural style during his reign shifted from the forceful and original styles of earlier emperors to a delicate elegance and refined detail, exemplified in the palaces of Agra and Delhi.
• Notable Structures: The Taj Mahal in Agra, built in honor of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, stands out as a prime example of his architectural vision. Other significant buildings include the Moti Masjid(Pearl Mosque) in Agra Fort and the Jama Masjid in Delhi, both noted for their imposing presence and harmonious proportions.
• Additional Contributions: Shah Jahan also commissioned the Tomb of Jahangir, sections of the Lahore Fort(including the Moti Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha Pavilion), and the Shahjahan Mosque in Thatta. He built the Red Fort in his new capital, Shahjahanabad (Delhi), famous for its special buildings like Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas. The Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore was also constructed during his reign.

Some of Shahjahan’s famous buildings

• Built by Shah Jahan in 1648 as the fortified palace of Shahjahanabad, the capital city of Shah Jahan.
• Named for its massive red sandstone walls.
• Features: A regular rectangular shape with two main gates - the Delhi Gate and the Lahore Gate.

Major Structures of the Red Fort:

• Naubat Khana/Nakkar Khana: Also known as the drum house, where music was played at scheduled times daily.
• Diwan-i-Aam (Public Audience Hall): Used for state functions and public audiences. The courtyard behind it leads to the imperial apartments.
• Rang Mahal: Home to the emperor's wives and mistresses, known for its bright colors and mirror mosaics.
• Diwan-i-Khas: Hall of Private Audience, made of white marble and inlaid with precious stones. Famous for housing the Peacock Throne.
• Moti Masjid: A small mosque built in 1659 for Aurangzeb, featuring three domes and a white marble screen.
• Hammam: Imperial baths with three domed rooms, floored with white marble.
• Shahi Burj: Three-storey octagonal tower with a hydraulic system to channel water from the river.
• Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise): A canal running through the imperial apartments, connected to the Yamuna River.
• Khas Mahal: The emperor's apartment, featuring the Muthamman Burj, where he would appear before the public.

Architectural Features:

• The Red Fort showcases a unique blend of arcuate(arch-like) and trabeate(post-and-beam) architectural styles.
• The Diwan-i-Am is noted for its intricate Hindu pillar design, offering clear views from the throne.
• The multi-foliated arches create a water ripple effect, adding to the aesthetic appeal.

Moti Masjid in Agra Fort

Shah Jahan's reign saw the peak of mosque construction, with two notable examples:

Moti Masjid in Agra Fort:

• Built entirely of white marble, similar to the Taj Mahal.
• Featured an open arcaded prayer hall instead of traditional minarets, using chhatris on the corners.
• Included three bulbous domes, with intricate black marble calligraphy.

Jama Masjid in Delhi:

• Constructed from red sandstone.
• Characterized by a grand gate, tall slender minarets, and multiple domes.

Jami Masjid in Delhi

• Jama Masjid in Shahjahanabad is an expanded and larger version of the Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri, making it the largest mosque in India.
• Commissioned by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, construction began in 1650 and was completed in 1656.
• The mosque is built on a raised platform using red sandstone and white marble, with its foundation laid on a hillock.
• The floor is adorned with white and black marble, designed to resemble a Muslim prayer mat.
• It features three bulbous domes in white marble and is surrounded by open arched colonnades.
• The mosque is accessed by flights of steps from the east, north, and south, all made of red sandstone.
• Two tall minarets, each 130 feet high, flank the domes, intricately striped with white marble and red sandstone.
• Inside, there is a hall with seven arched entrances and a prayer hall with eleven arched entrances, the center one being the widest and tallest, resembling a grand gateway.
• The mosque faces west, with its three sides adorned with open arched colonnades and lofty tower-like gateways.
• The walls of the mosque are covered with marble, adding to its grandeur and elegance.

Garden-tombs, e.g., the Taj Mahal.

• Historical Significance: The Taj Mahal represents the peak of imperial architecture in India, showcasing the evolution of this style over time.
• Construction Timeline: Work on the Taj Mahal began in 1632 and was largely finished by 1643.
• Design and Architecture: The design of the Taj Mahal is attributed to various architects, with Italian Geronimo Veroneo often mentioned. Other notable figures include Ustad Isa Effendi and Ustad Ahmad from Lahore.
• Collaborative Effort: Shah Jahan, the Mughal emperor, played a crucial role in the design process, working with a council of experts and making significant suggestions. The final design was a collective effort, much like Mughal paintings.
• Architectural Features:The Taj Mahal incorporates several key architectural elements, including:
  • Formal Garden: The mausoleum is set within a formal garden featuring running water and fountains.
  • Marble Platform: The main building is elevated on a marble platform, enhancing its solidity and the dome's skyline.
  • Rectangular Complex: The complex is laid out in a rectangle, surrounded by high walls and featuring a grand entrance gateway.
  • Symmetrical Design: The layout includes octagonal pavilions and mosques on either side, maintaining symmetry.
  • Dome and Minarets: The central dome, topped with an inverted lotus finial, is flanked by four slender minarets, creating a harmonious skyline.
• Decorative Elements:The Taj Mahal is renowned for its intricate decorative features, such as:
  • Exterior: Calligraphy and inlay work adorn the outer surfaces.
  • Interior: Pietra dura, delicate marble screens, and chhatris enhance the interior space.
• Materials Used: The primary material used in construction is high-quality marble sourced from the Makrana quarries near Jodhpur.
• Garden Design: The garden in front of the main structure is divided into four quadrants by two canals, reflecting the Mughal tradition of garden design.
• Cenotaph Details: Originally, the cenotaph in the main hall was surrounded by a golden screen, but it was later replaced by a marble screen during Aurangzeb's reign.

Aurangzeb

• His temperament was reflected in the buildings of his era, leading to a shift towards austere material and style.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, there was a transition from  squared stone and marble to brick or rubble with stucco ornamentation.
• Examples of later Indo-Muslim architecture can be seen in Srirangapatna and Lucknow.

Architectural Changes Under Aurangzeb:

• Aurangzeb lacked his father's passion for architecture, resulting in a withdrawal of the generous encouragement to the arts that his predecessors had provided.
• His reign saw the construction of very few notable buildings.

Notable Buildings from Aurangzeb's Era

Rabia ud Dauran's Mausoleum in Aurangabad:

• An attempt to emulate the Taj Mahal.
• Significant miscalculations led to deviations, particularly with the superfluous minarets.

Badshahi Masjid in Lahore:

• Constructed in 1674, adjacent to the Lahore Fort.
• Last in a series of congregational mosques in red sandstone, closely modeled on Shah Jahan's mosque in Shahjahanabad.
• Features a vast court, a free-standing prayer hall, and minarets at each corner.
• Constructed with red sandstone and white marble, featuring a contrast between the two materials.
• Three bulbous domes in white marble rise beautifully over the prayer hall.

Moti Masjid at Lal Qila, Delhi:

• Constructed with fine quality marble.
• Similar in design to the Moti Masjid built by Shah Jahan in Agra Fort.
• Features three bulbous domes covering the prayer hall.

Contributions to Lahore Fort and the Alamgiri Gate:

• Aurangzeb made additions to the Lahore Fort and built one of the thirteen gates, later named the Alamgir Gate.
• The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., serves as the main entrance to the Lahore Fort.
• Constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque.

Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka, Bangladesh:

• A Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River, with construction starting in 1678 during Aurangzeb's reign.

Monuments Associated with Women in Aurangzeb’s Family:

• The Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganij was overseen by Aurangzeb’s second daughter, Zinat-al-Nisa.
• The tomb of Aurangzeb’s sister, Roshanara Begum, and the surrounding garden are also significant monuments from this period.

Bibi Ka Maqbara:

• Although Aurangzeb was economy-minded and did not construct many buildings, the Mughal architectural traditions based on a blend of Hindu and Turko-Iranian forms continued uninterrupted into the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Influence of Mughal Traditions:

• Mughal traditions influenced the palaces and forts of various provincial and local kingdoms.
• Even the Harmandir of the Sikhs, known as the Golden Temple at Amritsar, was built on the arch and dome principle, incorporating many features of Mughal architectural traditions.

Golden Temple at Amritsar:

• The holiest Sikh gurdwara, located in Amritsar, Punjab, India.
• Foundation stone laid by Muslim Sufi saint Sai Hazrat Mian Mir on 3 January 1588.
• Present-day gurdwara rebuilt in 1764 by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia with contributions from other Sikh Misls.
• Upper floors covered with gold by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the early nineteenth century.

Aesthetic Sense and Craftsmanship:

• The rulers of this period did not attempt to establish a communal representation between Hindu and Islamic elements in their buildings.
• They used whatever elements and devices they found useful and artistic.
• The conjunction of these elements was achieved through a fine aesthetic sense and the skill of Indian craftsmen, resulting in structures that were both graceful and pleasing.

The Safdar Jang’s Tomb (post-Aurangzeb’s period):

Emulation of Taj Mahal:

• It is a double-storeyed structure topped with a large, nearly spherical dome.
• The minarets are designed to resemble turrets, each capped with a domed kiosk.
• The main building is elevated on an arcaded platform.
• Constructed using red sandstone and marble.