Regional Principalities: Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Rise of Independent Regional States Post-Mughal Empire:

• After the fall of the Mughal Empire, independent regional states began to emerge across India.
• However, contemporary Persian and early British historians often overlooked this development. They tended to overemphasize the decline of the Mughal Empire and glorify the establishment of British rule.
• Recent research on 18th century India emphasizes the importance of studying this period on its own merits. It suggests that we should not view the 18th century merely as a decline of imperial authority or the beginning of colonial rule.

Historical perspective of the emergence of regional polities 

• Centralized Administration: The Mughal administration was centralized, relying on the Emperor's power to control nobles, zamindars, jagirdars, and provincial officials.
• Emperor's Control: The Emperor controlled the provincial administration through appointments, ensuring loyalty and effectiveness.
• Key Officials: The Emperor appointed important officials like the diwan (head of revenue) and nazim (executive head), as well as other officials such as amils, faujdars, and kotwals.
• Dependence on the Emperor: Provincial governors relied on the Emperor's goodwill for their positions and authority.
• Challenges to Central Authority: The central administration faced financial crises and factional rivalries, weakening its control over provinces.
• Emergence of Regional Powers: Provincial governors began to assert independence by making local appointments, establishing dynastic rule, and exercising authority with nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor.
• Autonomous States: Regions like Deccan and Rajputana, although acknowledging Mughal authority, started to assert their independence.

Types of Emerging States:

• Successor States: States like Bengal, Hyderabad, and Awadh, founded by Mughal provincial governors who maintained links with the Empire while exercising local autonomy.
• Rebel States: New states like the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghan kingdoms, established in opposition to Mughal rule.
• Independent States: Regions like Rajput, Mysore, and Kerala (Travancore), which were semi-independent and took advantage of the weakening Mughal control.
• Overall Trend: The 18th century saw the decline of Mughal central authority and the rise of regional powers, leading to a fragmented political landscape in India.

Successor States 

Bengal 

Decline of Mughal Authority in Bengal:

• The subah of Bengal gradually gained independence from Mughal control after Murshid Quli Khan became governor in 1717.
• Initially appointed as diwan(revenue collector) by Aurangzeb, Murshid Quli was later made deputy governor of Bengal and governor of Orissa under Farruksiyar.
• When he became nazim of Bengal in 1717, he was allowed to hold both the nazim and diwan positions simultaneously, breaking the traditional power division.
• This consolidation of power allowed Murshid Quli to strengthen his control while still sending revenue to the Mughal treasury.
• Despite formal allegiance, he enjoyed significant autonomy and began a quasi-dynastic rule.
• Murshid Quli was the last Mughal-appointed governor of Bengal, and his successful revenue administration made Bengal a surplus revenue area, increasing collection by 20% from 1700 to 1722.
• He implemented reforms including detailed surveys, elimination of small zamindars, and encouragement of large zamindars to improve revenue collection.
• By his death in 1727, the largest zamindaris were responsible for a significant portion of the province's revenue.
• Trade flourished during his rule, with Bengal's goods being exported to Europe and other regions, and the province maintaining a favorable balance of trade.
• Merchants and bankers became increasingly important, with the banking house of Jagat Seth rising to prominence under Murshid Quli's patronage.
• After Murshid Quli's death, his grandson Sarfaraz Khan initially succeeded him but was replaced by Shujauddin Muhammad Khan, who maintained Mughal relations while enjoying local autonomy.
• The government of Bengal began to resemble a cooperative rule by local forces rather than imposition from above.
• The power of the nazim diminished as local forces gained influence, culminating in the coup against Sarfaraz Khan by Alivardi Khan with the support of Jagat Seth and zamindars.
• Alivardi Khan's reign marked a break from Mughal authority, with major appointments made independently and the cessation of regular revenue flow to Delhi.
• He faced challenges from Maratha invasions and Afghan rebellions, eventually reaching an agreement with the Marathas and defeating the Afghan troops.
• Alivardi died in 1756, and his successor Siraj-ud-daula faced challenges from court factions and was eventually overthrown by the English East India Company in 1757.

Hyderabad 

• The autonomous kingdom of Hyderabad was established in 1724 by Nizamul-Mulk Asaf Jah I(Chin Qulich Khan), a powerful noble and leader of the Turani party.
• Initially serving as the wazir under Muhammad Shah from 1722 to 1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk decided to carve out his own principality in the Deccan.
• He defeated Mubariz Khan, the Mughal governor of Deccan, in 1722, becoming the Subahdar of Deccan in 1723 and consolidating power around Hyderabad.
• The kingdom's actual independence began in 1740 when the Nizam settled permanently in Hyderabad, subduing local zamindars and fostering a new regional elite.

Consolidation of Power:

• By the time of his death in 1748, Hyderabad was a recognizable power in Deccan politics, acknowledging Mughal suzerainty only symbolically.
• Coins were minted in the Mughal emperor's name, and his name was included in the khutba(Friday prayers), but the Nizam acted independently in governance.
• After Asaf Jah I's death, Hyderabad faced crises such as Maratha attacks and a succession conflict between his son Nasir Jung and grandson Muzaffar Jung.
• Muzaffar Jung eventually emerged victorious, but the kingdom continued to face challenges from the Marathas, Mysore, and the Carnatic.

Stability and Administration:

• Under Nizam Ali Khan(1762-1803), stability was restored through border dispute settlements with neighboring territories.
• The administrative system incorporated indigenous power structures into a patron-client relationship, with locally powerful traders, moneylenders, and military aristocracy providing support to the Nizam.
• Semi-autonomous rulers governed their territories in return for an annual tribute or peshkash paid to the Nizam.
• The old Mughal institutions were retained but underwent changes, with land revenue collected through powerful intermediary revenue farmers.
• The jagirs became hereditary, and the mansabdari system retained some Mughal features but was significantly altered.
• The nobility's composition changed, with new members rising from lower ranks in revenue and financial management.
• Power remained widely diffused within the Hyderabadi administrative structure.

Awadh

• In 1722, Saadat Khan was appointed the Mughal governor of Awadh, tasked with quelling local rebellions.
• He successfully subdued the uprisings within a year and was honored with the title Burhan-ul-Mulk by Emperor Muhammad Shah.
• Frustrated with court politics, Saadat Khan aimed to establish a strong power base in Awadh.
• He appointed his son-in-law Safdar Jung as his deputy governor, gaining imperial recognition.

Establishing Power and Autonomy:

• Saadat Khan worked to make the office of diwan independent from imperial control.
• He suppressed rebellious zamindars and chieftains, curtailed the authority of madad-i-maash grantees, systematized revenue collection, and negotiated with some local zamindars.
• A new land revenue settlement was introduced, increasing revenue demands significantly.
• The jagirdari system was reformed, granting jagirs to local gentry and fostering a prosperous trade environment.

Regional Elite and Imperial Relations:

• A new regional ruling elite emerged, supporting Saadat Khan, composed of Indian Muslims, Afghans, and Hindus.
• He maintained communication with the imperial court, expanding Awadh's borders with formal imperial approval.
• Despite his contributions during Nadir Shah's invasion, Saadat Khan faced disappointment in court politics and eventually sided with the Persian invader.

Death and Legacy:

• Saddened by the behavior of Nadir Shah, Saadat Khan took his own life after the occupation of Delhi in 1740.
• By his death, he had established a semi-autonomous political system in Awadh, with reduced financial ties to the Mughal state.
• Safdar Jung succeeded him, paying a hefty sum to Nadir Shah and later being confirmed by Muhammad Shah.

Safdar Jung’s Rise and Fall:

• Safdar Jung expanded his influence after being appointed wazir by Ahmad Shah in 1748, notably seizing Farukhabad from the Pathans.
• His self-serving actions alienated the imperial family and court nobles, leading to his ouster in 1753.

Turning Point in North India:

• Safdar Jung’s ousting marked a significant shift, indicating the secession of Awadh and Allahabad from the declining Mughal Empire.
• After his death in 1754, his son Shuja-ud daula was appointed governor of Awadh by the puppet emperor Alamgir II.
• Shuja maintained power and autonomy within Awadh and Allahabad, becoming a key ally during the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.

Independence and Conflict with the East India Company:

• Shuja acted as an independent partner in alliances, notably against the Marathas, until his encounter with the English East India Company in 1764.

Rebel States 

Maratha

• The Maratha state emerged as the most prominent provincial power during this period, driven by regional resistance to Mughal centralization and the upward mobility of certain classes and castes.
• The Mughals struggled to exert effective control over the Maratha heartland.

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath:

• Under Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, the Peshwa's office gained significant power, and the Maratha state became a dominant and expansionist force.
• During the leadership from Balaji Vishwanath to Balaji Rao, the Maratha Empire reached its peak, expanding across South, East, North, and Central India.

The Third Battle of Panipat:

• The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, fought between the Afghans and the Marathas, marked a major setback for the Maratha Empire, halting their expansion.

Administrative Structure:

• The Maratha administrative system was divided into non-regulation and regulation areas.
• In non-regulated areas, existing zamindars and chieftains managed local administration but were required to pay tribute to the Peshwa.
• In regulated areas, the Marathas established direct control, implementing systems for revenue assessment and management, with the watan system being central.
• The watan system involved hereditary land rights held by patrilineal relatives, rather than individual incumbents.
• The Marathas adopted some elements of the Mughal administrative system but focused primarily on extracting surplus.
• Despite these efforts, the Marathas struggled to consolidate their influence due to the lack of a well-defined provincial authority.

Punjab

• Different from other regions.
• Governor Zakaria Khan attempted to establish an independent political system.
• Failed due to the Sikh struggle for political authority.

Sikh Movement:

• Initially started by Guru Nanak to reform religious beliefs.
• Transformed into a political movement in the 18th century.
• Sikhs organized into small, mobile Jathas, challenging Mughal authority.

Fluid Situation in Punjab:

• Foreign invasions (Persian and Afghan), Mantha incursions,and internal rivalries created chaos.
• This chaos allowed the Sikhs to consolidate their base.

Formation of Conflicts:

• By the second half of the 18th century,different Sikh groups regrouped into 12 regional confederacies or misls.
• Led by various local chieftains.

Establishment of Autonomous State:

• Completed under Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century.
• Marked the establishment of an autonomous state in Punjab.

The Jat State

• The Jats were a farming community living in the Delhi-Agra region. In the late 17th century, they led a significant agrarian revolt against the Mughal Empire.
• Like other groups at the time, the Jats aimed to create their own autonomous zone.
• Initially, leaders Churaman and Badan Singh played crucial roles, but it was Suraj Mal who truly strengthened the Jat state at Bharatpur between 1756 and 1763.
• Under Suraj Mal, the state expanded its borders:East to the Ganga, South to the Chambal, North to Delhi, and West to Agra.
• The state was feudal in nature, with zamindars holding both administrative and revenue powers.
• However, the Jat state declined quickly after Suraj Mal’s death.

Independent states 

The Mysore

• Mysore was not directly controlled by the Mughals. It was transformed from a region under the Vijaynagar Empire into an independent state by the Wodeyar dynasty.
• In the 18th century, Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan overthrew the Wodeyar rulers to strengthen the autonomy of Mysore.
• Mysore faced major threats from the Marathas, Hyderabad, and Karnataka, while the British were waiting to take advantage of the situation.

Rise of Haidar Ali:

• Haidar Ali started his career as a junior officer in the Mysore army and eventually became its brilliant commander.
• He recognized the importance of a modern army and attempted to modernize the Mysore military with European methods, seeking help from the French to improve organizational discipline.
• By 1761, Haidar Ali overthrew the minister Nunjaraj, who was the real power behind the Mysore throne.
• He expanded the boundaries of Mysore, incurring the hostility of the Marathas, Hyderabad, and the British.

Conflicts with the British:

• In 1769, Haidar Ali defeated British forces, but the conflict continued.
• After Haidar Ali's death in 1782, his son, Tipu Sultan, continued his father's work until the end of the 18th century.

The Rajputs

• The Rajput rulers aimed to establish independent political authority and pursued expansion by seizing neighboring territories.
• Principal Rajput states such as Mewar, Marwar, and Amber formed a league against the Mughals. However, internal rivalries among the Rajputs weakened their collective authority.
• The most prominent Rajput rulers during this period were Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Jai Singh of Jaipur.

Kerala

• At the start of the 18th century, Kerala was made up of small regions ruled by local chieftains and rajas.
• The Mughals did not have a strong presence in Kerala. However, by the late 18th century, major states like Cochin, Travancore, and Calicut had taken control of the small principalities.
• The rise of Mysore under Haidar Ali created challenges for Kerala. Haidar Ali annexed Malabar and Calicut.
• Travancore, which avoided Haidar Ali’s invasion, became prominent under King Martanda Varma. He expanded its boundaries from Kanya Kumari to Cochin, reorganized the army based on Western models, and implemented various administrative reforms to strengthen the state.