Third Battle of Panipat | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Third Battle of Panipat: 1761 

Overview of the Third Battle of Panipat:

• The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the invading forces led by Ahmad Shah Abdali, the King of Afghanistan.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali was supported by two Indian allies: Najib ad Dawlah, leader of the Rohilla Afghans in the Doab region, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh.

Significance of the Battle:

• This battle is regarded as one of the largest and most significant battles of the 18th century.
• It is believed to have changed the power dynamics in India, marking a setback for the Maratha Empire and curbing their rising influence.

Sequence of events resulting into Maratha Afghan conflict 

• In 1752 A.D., a treaty between the Mughal emperor and the Peshwa granted the Marathas the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from all over India. In return, the Marathas agreed to assist the Mughal emperor in times of need.
• The Marathas became directly involved in the political affairs of Delhi. The Mughal nobility was divided into conflicting groups, primarily between Indian Muslims and foreign Muslims, particularly the Turanis.
• The Marathas aligned with the Indian Muslims, while the foreign Muslims sought help from Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan, who aimed to control Kashmir, Multan, and Punjab.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India in 1752 A.D., forcing the Mughal emperor, Ahmad Shah, to surrender Multan and Punjab.
• In 1754 A.D., the Marathas, with the help of Vazir Gaziuddin, placed Alamgir II on the Mughal throne, replacing Ahmad Shah, which displeased the foreign nobles, especially Nazib-ud-daula.
• In 1756 A.D., Gaziuddin seized Multan and Punjab from Muglani Begum, leading to further conflict with Abdali.
• Abdali retaliated by attacking Punjab and reaching Delhi, appointing Nazib-ud-daula as Mir Bakshi and assigning Punjab to his son.
• Maratha leader Raghunath Rao attempted to intervene in Delhi but arrived after Abdali had retreated. Raghunath Rao removed Nazib-ud-daula from power.
• The Marathas also attacked Punjab, placing it under Maratha control. Dattaji, a Maratha noble, attempted negotiations with Nazib-ud-daula but failed.
• Abdali, angered by Dattaji's actions, attacked Punjab again, resulting in a battle near Delhi where Dattaji was killed.
• The Peshwa, upon hearing of Dattaji's defeat, sent a Maratha army under Sadashiva Rao Bhau to drive Abdali out of India. However, by the time they reached Delhi in 1760, Abdali had already left.
• Abdali declared that his goal was not to stay in India but to remove the Marathas from the South and place Emperor Shah Alam on the throne of Delhi. Nazib-ud-daula and Suja-ud-daula supported this plan.
• Sadashiva Rao Bhau attempted to gain the support of various northern chiefs and rulers but largely failed.
• The conflict between the Marathas and Abdali culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat, where the Marathas suffered a significant defeat.

Primary causes which resulted into this battle

• The Mughal emperors were unable to control the actions of the nobility. If there had been a stronger emperor, the situation could have been very different.
• The nobility was divided into competing factions. Nazib-ud-daula and Suja-ud-daula were seeking outside support, and Abdali was a ready ally.
• The Marathas aimed to expand their influence in the North.
• Abdali sought to capture Kashmir, Multan, and Punjab.

Causes of defeat of Maratha

• Abdali's forces had a numerical advantage over Bhauji's troops.

Afghans were better equipped:

• Abdali's troops were not only better organized but also better equipped. While Abdali's forces used muskets, the Marathas primarily fought with swords and lances. Abdali's swivel guns, mounted on camels, wreaked havoc on the battlefield.
• Although the Marathas had some of the finest French-made guns of the time, their artillery was static and lacked the mobility needed to counter the fast-moving Afghan forces.
• The heavy mounted artillery of the Afghans proved far superior on the battlefield compared to the Marathas' light artillery.

Marathas did not use their guerilla method of warfare in which they were master:

• Malharrao Holkar had advised it. Ahmad Shah's superiority in pitched battle could have been negated by using guerilla tactics.

Superiority of Abdali against Bhau as a commander:

• Bhau made several strategic errors despite his bravery and courage.
• He acted impulsively, such as when he saw the death of his beloved Vishwasrao and rushed into enemy lines without considering the consequences.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali, on the other hand, was one of the best generals of his time in Asia, inheriting the capacity and spirit of Nadir Shah.
• Abdali's experience, maturity, superior tactics, and strategic planning thwarted any chances of Maratha success.

Indisciplined Maratha army:

• Indiscipline was rampant in the Maratha army at that time. Unlike during Shivaji's era when strict rules were enforced, such as banning women from army camps, the Maratha camp now included a large number of women and servants who were a burden to the army.
• The effective fighting force of the Marathas numbered only 45,000, while Abdali's army consisted of nearly 60,000 soldiers.
• The campaigning, marching, and discipline of Abdali's army stood in stark contrast to that of the Marathas.

Scarcity of supplies:

• Bhau lost control over the Doab region, leading to a scarcity of supplies.
• Near-famine conditions prevailed in the Maratha camp at Panipat. The road to Delhi was cut off by the Afghan forces, leaving no food for the men and fodder for the horses.
• In contrast, the Afghans maintained their supply line open with the Doab and the Delhi region. Bhau wasted three months camped before Abdali at Panipat, engaging in battle when the Maratha army was already semi-starved from the last two months.
• The Marathas were fighting far from their capital Pune, a distance of 1000 miles.

Lack of allies:

• The Marathas alienated the locals (Jats and Punjabis) when they occupied parts of Punjab and Haryana after taking Delhi.
• While the Muslim powers of Northern India rallied behind Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Marathas had to fight alone. The Marathas' overbearing attitude and policy of indiscriminate plunder estranged not only the Muslim powers but also Hindu powers like the Jats and Rajputs. Even the Sikhs, who were traditional enemies of the Afghans, did not support the Marathas.

Diplomatic failure of Bhau:

• Bhau was unable to secure the support of important Muslim leaders in the North.
• He even lost the support of Suraj Mal, the Jat Raja of Bharatpur, who was disgusted by Bhau's behavior and left the Maratha camp. In contrast, Nazib-ud-daula was able to persuade Suja-ud-daula, the ruler of Avadh, to side with Abdali by appealing to him in the name of Islam.

Mutual jealousies:

• The mutual jealousies among the Maratha commanders significantly weakened their position. For example, Bhau called Malhar Rao Holkar a dotard past his usefulness, undermining Holkar's esteem in the eyes of the army and the public.
• The Maratha captains were individualistic in spirit and their military tactics, which further contributed to their downfall.

Consequences of 3rd battle of Panipat

On the Maratha

• The Marathas suffered significant losses in both men and money.
• An entire generation of capable leaders was lost, giving power to the unscrupulous Raghunatha Rao, a notorious figure in Maratha history.

Impact on Prestige and Unity:

• The battle tarnished the Marathas' prestige, making them no longer seen as invincible.
• Beyond territorial losses, the battle weakened the unity of the Maratha Empire, leading to its disintegration.
• It dealt a severe blow to Maratha unity.

Shift in Power Dynamics:

• The Peshwa lost his dominant role in the Maratha confederacy, becoming just one of the confederate leaders.
• Subordinate members like Sindhia, Holkar, Bhosle, and Gaikwad gained virtual independence.

Setback in Territorial Expansion:

• The battle halted Maratha expansion into North India.
• It took the Marathas a long time to regain their power, during which other powers strengthened themselves.
• After this defeat, the Marathas could no longer claim to be the foremost power in India and became just one of the powers.

Decline in Influence:

• The Marathas fell from their high status. Other Indian powers believed that Maratha friendship was no longer valuable.
• In Malwa, dispossessed chieftains and petty landlords began to rise against the Marathas.
• Although Sindhia remained the protector of the Mughal emperor for a time, the Marathas failed to strengthen their hold over the North.
• This weakness allowed the British to eliminate the French in India and gain power in Bengal.

On Ahmad Shah Abdali

• After the battle, the Afghan leader, Abdali, did not gain significant benefits except for some plunder.
• There was almost a rebellion in Abdali's camp due to unpaid wages.

Abdali's Decision:

• Due to the unrest, Abdali decided to return to Afghanistan.
• He left Najib-ud-daulah as his representative in Delhi.
• Abdali then started negotiations with the Marathas in Punjab.

Conclusion of Peace:

• In 1763 AD, peace was established with Peshwa Madhava Rao I.
• Madhava Rao I recognized the Punjab region as Afghan territory.

On the Sikhs 

• The Sikhs demonstrated their strength in the north-west by successfully resisting Afghan invaders and swiftly occupying the Punjab region.
• In 1764 AD, the Sikhs gathered in Amritsar and minted their first coins, symbolizing the establishment of their sovereignty.
• After the Abdali retreated from the Punjab, the Sikhs reasserted their dominance by capturing Lahore.
• From 1767 to 1770, the Sikhs expanded their territory significantly, establishing control from Saharanpur in the east to Attock in the west, and from Multan in the south to Kangra and Jammu in the north.
• During this period, they organized themselves into twelve misls, further solidifying their power in the region.

On Rajputs, Nizam and Haider Ali

• The Nizam reinitiated offensive actions.
• In the south, Mysore, under the leadership of Haider Ali, emerged as an aggressive neighbor.

On Najib-ud-daulah and Shuja-ud-daulah 

• Najib-ud-Daula, the Rohilla chief and supporter of the Abdali, became the undisputed master of Delhi for nine years.
• The Abdali's victory also boosted the prestige of Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh.
• Najib and Shuja emerged as prominent leaders of the Muslims in northern India.

On the English

• During the mid-eighteenth century, there was a struggle for power between the Mughals, the Marathas, and the English in India.
• The Battle of Panipat marked the failure of the Mughal and Maratha contestants, which opened the way for the English to strengthen their position.
• While the Battle of Plassey had set the stage for British dominance in India, the Battle of Panipat provided the English with the opportunity to consolidate and expand their authority.
• Panipat allowed British power to grow and take strong root in India.