French Revolution: National Assembly 1789-91 | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Accession of Louis XVI (1774-1793)

His Character:

• Louis XVI became the King of France in 1774, succeeding his grandfather.
• He was an unhappy monarch during a time when the problems in France had reached their peak.
• Louis XVI was honest, well-intentioned, and genuinely wanted to help his people. He aimed to reform the abuses that were weakening the State.
• However, he was weak, indecisive, and easily influenced by others. This made it difficult for him to withstand the pressure from a corrupt court that resisted any reforms that threatened their privileges.
• The king was heavily influenced by his wife, Antoinette, the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. She was beautiful, lively, strong-willed, and capable of making quick decisions, possessing qualities that Louis XVI lacked.
• Despite her strengths, Antoinette, like her husband, was young, inexperienced, and lacking in wisdom and sound judgment. Her influence over the king ultimately proved detrimental to both him and France.

Efforts at Financial Reform

Chronic Financial Deficit and the Threat of Bankruptcy:

• When Louis XVI came to power, he inherited a dire financial situation. The debts accumulated during Louis XIV's reign were worsened by the wars and extravagances of Louis XV.
• Additionally, the costs of France's involvement in the American Revolution added to this burden.
• The combination of excessive, unregulated state spending and the wastefulness of the court further destabilized national finances, pushing the country towards bankruptcy.
• The government faced a persistent deficit, struggling to balance revenues and expenditures.

Financial Reforms by Turgot:

• At the start of his reign, Louis XVI appointed Turgot, a capable administrator, to manage the finances.
• Turgot aimed to improve the national finances through strict expenditure controls and by enhancing public wealth to increase revenue.
• He eliminated unnecessary expenses, introduced free trade in grain by removing internal customs barriers, and abolished trade guilds that limited production by capping the number of workers in each trade.
• Turgot also proposed replacing the hated corvée with a land tax applicable to all property owners, aiming to equalize the tax burden.
• However, these reforms challenged established privileges, creating numerous enemies for Turgot.
• Those whose interests were threatened united against him, and under pressure from the privileged classes, Louis XVI eventually dismissed Turgot, losing a strong ally in the process.

Necker’s Reforms:

• Following Turgot's dismissal, Necker took over financial management.
• He faced immediate resistance when he proposed necessary economic measures due to the heavy expenditure from supporting the American cause.
• Necker abolished the tax farming system and published a financial report detailing the state’s income and expenses for the first time.
• This transparency regarding national accounts angered court members, leading to his ousting.

The Summoning of the States-General and the Decline of the Old Regime:

• After Necker's departure, a series of inept finance ministers worsened the situation, driving France closer to bankruptcy.
• With no option but to propose new taxes, the Parlement of Paris opposed any tax scheme and demanded the convening of the States-General, claiming it was the only body legally authorized to impose taxes.
• The king tried to assert his authority over the Parlement, but the Parlement resisted.
• Widespread riots and increasing demands for the States-General led the king, in desperation, to summon the States-General in 1789 and reinstate Necker as head of the ministry.

Significance of Summoning the States-General:

• The call for the States-General after nearly two centuries marked a significant shift, acknowledging the failure of absolute monarchy and paving the way for constitutional monarchy.
• Every member of the States-General brought a list of grievances (Cahiers) from their constituencies.
• While all orders called for a constitution and tax reforms, the Third Estate also sought the abolition of feudal rights.
• The Cahiers reflected a desire for reform but not a rejection of monarchy itself.

Nature and Composition of the States-General:

• The States-General, or feudal Parliament of France, was a three-chamber body representing the clergy, nobles, and commons.
• Having not met for 176 years, it was effectively dormant. Its revival during a national crisis raised questions about its constitution.
• Previously, each order had equal delegates and voted separately, giving the clergy and nobility decisive power over the Third Estate.
• Necker had allowed the Third Estate to have as many members as the other two orders combined, but the impact of this was diminished by the uncertainty in the voting process.
• If voting was by orders, the Third Estate's increased membership would be ineffective; if by individuals, the commons would have a majority, bringing the government under popular control—a scenario the privileged orders would resist.

Transformation of the States-General into the National Assembly

Third Estate's Demand for Individual Voting:

• When the States-General convened on May 5, 1789, the members of the Third Estate argued that it was not a feudal assembly but one representing the entire nation.
• They demanded that the three orders meet as a single chamber where each individual would have a vote.
• The Third Estate had been allowed to send twice as many members as either the clergy or the nobility. Changing from voting by order to individual voting meant a shift of power from the privileged classes to the common people.
• Despite strong resistance from the clergy and the nobility, the Commons remained steadfast.

Declaration of the National Assembly:

• After much debate, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on June 17, 1789.
• By this title, the Commons claimed the right to represent the whole nation, even without the support of the privileged orders.
• This action was revolutionary, as it was not sanctioned by the French constitution, leading to a crisis and further developments in the revolution.

King's Opposition to the National Assembly:

• The king, under pressure from the court,opposed the National Assembly.
• He closed the meeting hall to prevent the Assembly from gathering.
• In response, the members rushed to a nearby tennis court and took an oath not to disband until a constitution was established (Tennis Court Oath).
• The king declared the Third Estate's actions illegal, trying to force them to follow the old procedure of meeting in separate chambers.
• Mirabeau, a noble supporting the people,defied the king's orders.

King's Yielding to the Commons:

• Seeing the determination of the Commons, the king relented and ordered the clergy and nobility to join the Third Estate.
• This united the three orders into a single chamber, completing the formation of the National Assembly.
• The people achieved their first victory over the king, shifting power from the monarch and privileged orders to the people at the start of the revolution.

Uprising of the Paris Mob:

• After recognizing the National Assembly, the king, influenced by his courtiers, attempted to suppress it.
• Troops began to gather near Paris, and Necker, the popular minister, was dismissed.
• These actions alarmed the people, who feared the king intended to use force against the National Assembly.
• The Paris mob rose in anger against the king, denouncing him as a tyrant.

Storming of the Bastille:

• The enraged populace attacked the Bastille, a state prison seen as a symbol of tyranny and the abuses of the Old Regime.
• Following a bloody confrontation with royal troops, the Bastille was razed to the ground on July 14, 1789.
• The fall of the Bastille was celebrated across France as a victory for liberty, sparking widespread enthusiasm.

Establishment of the National Guard:

• After the fall of the Bastille, the Parisian mob assumed control of the city.
• A new form of municipal government was established in Paris, and a city militia called the National Guard was organized to maintain order.
• Lafayette was appointed commander of this new military force, marking a municipal phase of the Revolution.

Effects of the Fall of the Bastille

The King's Response:

• In response to the escalating crisis, the king quickly conceded to the pressure. He withdrew the troops, reinstated Necker, and acknowledged the National Guard.

Provinces in Uproar:

• While order was temporarily restored in Paris, news of the Bastille's fall spread rapidly, igniting fervor in the provinces.
• Other cities began establishing municipal governments similar to Paris and organized provincial national guards.
• In rural areas, the Revolution manifested as a revolt against feudalism, with peasants rising up, plundering noble castles, and destroying records of feudal obligations. The Revolution was now in full swing.

Abolition of Feudal Privileges and the End of the Old Regime:

• The peasant uprisings in the provinces had immediate and dramatic consequences. In a notable session of the National Assembly on August 4, 1789, the nobles voluntarily relinquished their feudal rights and privileges.
• Hunting rights, corvees, and other customary services were abolished. Guilds and similar closed corporations were dismantled, and tithes were abolished.
• Offices were no longer sold and became accessible to all. In essence, class distinctions were eradicated, and the principle of equality was established as the foundation of the state and society.
• The last remnants of feudalism were eradicated from France, completing the overthrow of the Old Regime.

Women’s March to Versailles:

• Amidst ongoing court intrigues, the people's suspicion grew.
• The fear of suspicion was compounded by the fear of famine due to bread scarcity in Paris.
• On October 5th, a large group of women, gaunt from prolonged suffering, marched to Versailles to bring the king back, dragging cannons with them.
• The king, intimidated by this show of force, agreed to leave Versailles and returned to Paris, escorted by the determined women.
• From this point on, the king was effectively a prisoner at the mercy of the mob, marking the near ruin of the monarchy.

Work of the Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)

After dismantling the feudal privileges of the nobles and the old constitution, the National Assembly set out to create the future constitution of France. The body was renamed the Constituent Assembly, as its primary task was to draft a new constitution. This was a challenging endeavor because, despite their intelligence, the members lacked political experience and often prioritized logical perfection over practical considerations.

The New Constitution

• Basic Principles of the New Order: The Assembly, inspired by American practices, outlined the principles for France's new constitution. These principles were embedded in the Declaration of Rights, which asserted that all men are free and equal in rights and that sovereignty belongs to the people. This declaration eliminated the principles of the Old Regime and established the foundation for a new order in France.
• The Executive: The Constituent Assembly devised a constitution that was adopted in 1791. According to this constitution, France would be governed by a king and a parliament called the Legislative Assembly. The king would be the head of the executive branch and could choose his own ministers, who would not be part of the legislature. This arrangement strictly separated the executive and legislative powers.
• The king would oversee the army, navy, and foreign affairs but could not declare war without legislative consent. He was granted a suspensive veto, allowing him to delay the passage of a measure until it had been approved by three successive assemblies.
• Legislature: All legislative authority was vested in the Legislative Assembly, which would consist of a single chamber with 745 members elected for two years through an indirect representation system based on limited franchise. Property qualification requirements excluded many citizens from voting, contradicting the principle of equality established in the Declaration of Rights.
• Judicial System: The judicial system in France was overhauled. Torture and letters de cachet were abolished, new central and local courts were established, and trial by jury was introduced. Judges were to be elected, a system that ultimately proved unsatisfactory.
• Administrative Division: For administrative and local governance purposes, the Constituent Assembly restructured France. The old provinces were eliminated, and France was divided into 83 departments of uniform size and equal rights. Each department was further divided into districts, cantons, and communes. The affairs of each department were managed by an elected council, and similar local councils were established for smaller administrative units. This process unified France while granting a degree of local self-government, transforming a highly centralized government into a more decentralized one.
• Financial Measures: The Assembly was tasked with addressing the urgent financial difficulties that had prompted the king to convene the States General. After several unsuccessful attempts to replenish the treasury, the Assembly confiscated all the endowment lands of the Church and declared them national property. Subsequently, paper money called assignats was issued based on the security of these Church lands.
• Reorganization of the Church: The Revolution, influenced by French philosophers, had a strong anti-clerical bias, leading to significant actions against the Church. Tithes were abolished, Church property was nationalized, and religious orders were suppressed. The government of the Church was reorganized through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which abolished old dioceses and established new bishoprics in line with the new departments.
• Election and State Control of Clergy: Bishops and priests were to be elected by popular vote and paid by the State. The Pope would no longer confirm bishops but would be informed of their election. This arrangement effectively turned clergy into state officials. The method of election, allowing all citizens to vote for Catholic bishops and priests, including Protestants and atheists, shocked religious convictions and created divisions within the Church and the nation, having severe consequences for the course of the revolution.

Estimate of the Work of the Constituent Assembly

Defects of the Constitution:

Mirabeau's remark about the Constituent Assembly reflected the chaos of the kingdom: "The disorganization of the kingdom could not have been better planned." The members of the Assembly were guided more by abstract principles than by practical knowledge, leading to serious defects in the constitution they framed.

Weak Executive:

• The constitution displayed a deep distrust of executive authority.
• The powers granted to the king were too weak to be effective.

Separation of Powers:

• The sharp separation between the executive and legislature made communication between the king’s ministers and the representatives of the people nearly impossible.
• This separation fostered mutual suspicion and risked deadlock or revolution in case of divergent aims.

Limited Franchise:

• The franchise was restricted by property qualifications, contradicting the principle of equality espoused in the Declaration of Rights.
• The unicameral legislature and the election system for judges were found unsatisfactory and had to be abandoned quickly.

Disastrous Effect of the Civil Constitution:

• The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was the most catastrophic error of the Constituent Assembly.
• It caused a schism in the Church and divided the French populace regarding the Revolution.
• A significant number of lower clergy, who initially supported the Revolution, turned against it due to conscience.
• The decision estranged the king, who, despite his reluctance, had accepted the Revolution.
• The Pope's denunciation of the Civil Constitution deeply unsettled the king.

Permanent Value of the Work of the Constituent Assembly:

• Despite its flaws, the Constituent Assembly made significant contributions by abolishing the old social system of privilege and inequality and laying the groundwork for a new social order based on equality.
• The 'department' system it established, replacing old provinces, proved to be a lasting and beneficial change, promoting national unity by eliminating provincial privileges and local traditions.

Estimate of Mirabeau:

• Mirabeau, a noble by birth, experienced a life of excess due to his father's persecutions.
• He was elected to the States-General by the Third Estate and became deeply involved in the revolutionary movement.
• His disdain for the Old Regime and oratorical skills distinguished him as a leader.
• Mirabeau opposed autocracy but supported constitutional monarchy.
• He was the only member of the Constituent Assembly with a clear understanding of the constitutional issues and the situation's dynamics.
• He warned against a rigid separation of powers and the weakening of the king's executive authority, recognizing that a strong executive was necessary to prevent anarchy.
• Mirabeau aimed to convince the king to accept the changes and lead the Revolution along constitutional lines.
• However, his vision of compromise was unfeasible due to the king's inaction, the Assembly's jealousy, and the populace's radical ideas.
• He advised the king against inviting foreign intervention and suggested he leave Paris to unify France against the Parisian mob's lawlessness.
• Unfortunately, Mirabeau was not valued during his time. Distrusted by the Court and despised by democrats, he never gained significant influence.
• He passed away in 1791, and his death marked the loss of the most significant figure of the revolutionary period and the last hope for the French monarchy.

The Attempted Flight of the King:

• After being forced to Paris by a mob of women. the King found his situation increasingly intolerable.
• With Mirabeau's death, he lost a staunch supporter of the monarchy.
• The constitution had stripped him of power, leading him to plan an escape with his family.
• However, they were caught during their attempt and returned to Paris as prisoners, with the King suspended from his duties on June 21, 1791.

Effects of the King’s Flight (Rise of the Republican Party):

• The King's attempted flight had significant repercussions.
• It revealed his true feelings as an opponent of the constitution, undermining the people's faith in the monarchy.
• A republican faction emerged in the Assembly, led by figures like Robespierre and Danton, who argued that the King had lost his right to rule and called for a republic.
• The nation realized that monarchy was not essential, and the King's removal did not disrupt the state.
• This shift made republicanism a viable political option.
• Despite the rise of the republican party, constitutional monarchists remained the majority.
• In the ensuing struggle, they restored the King to his position.
• The King accepted the Constitution and pledged to uphold it.
• Having completed its work, the Constituent Assembly declared itself dissolved on September 30, 1791.

Attitude of Europe toward the Revolution

• The French Revolution was closely observed by people across Europe.
• Liberal thinkers saw it as the beginning of a new era of constitutional governance and international goodwill.
• Initially, the English were supportive of the Revolution.
• Fox praised it enthusiastically, while poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge expressed their hopes for a brighter future following the fall of tyranny in France.
• Pitt also viewed the Revolution positively, believing it would lead to a constitutional government in France, making her a less troublesome neighbor.
• Burke, however, cautioned against the Revolution, arguing that it differed significantly from the English Revolution of 1688.
• He believed the French Revolution's harmful doctrines and examples threatened the existing social order and civilization.
• As the Revolution's excesses became apparent, many in England shifted to Burke's perspective.
• Initially, the powers of Europe underestimated and misinterpreted the French Revolution, viewing it as a local disturbance with no wider implications.
• They were pleased, believing France would be too preoccupied with its internal issues to play a major role in European politics.
• However, the rapid developments in France and its aggressive propaganda challenged this notion, prompting the European powers to prepare for war to contain the spread of revolutionary ideas.
• Catherine II of Russia took advantage of the situation, seeking to embroil other powers in French affairs so she could expand her territory by annexing Poland.