INA Trial and RIN Mutiny | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Post World War II Scenario in India

• Complex negotiations involving the Government, Congress, and Muslim League, marked by communal violence, leading to freedom and partition.
• Intense and militant mass actions by workers, peasants, and states’ peoples across the country, sparked by events like the INA Release Movement, Royal Indian Navy (RIN) revolt, Tebhaga movement, Worli revolt, Punjab Kisan Morchas, Travancore peoples’ struggle, and the Telangana peasant revolt.
• When the ban on the Congress was lifted in June 1945 and Congress leaders were released, the government expected a demoralized public but found enthusiastic crowds eager for action.
• Public energy reemerged after years of repression, with heightened expectations following the release of leaders. The Wavell Plan, supported by the British Conservative Government, failed to resolve the constitutional deadlock.
• In July 1945, the Labour Party came to power in Britain, with Clement Attlee as Prime Minister and Pethick Lawrence as Secretary of State.
• In August 1945, elections for central and provincial assemblies were announced.
• In September 1945, it was declared that a constituent assembly would be convened after the elections, and the government was operating in line with the spirit of the Cripps Offer.

 Change in Government’s Attitude:

• Shift in Global Power Dynamics: Post-war, the UK lost its status as a global power. The USA and USSR emerged as superpowers, both supporting India's quest for freedom.
• Sympathetic Labour Government: The new Labour Government in the UK was more receptive to Indian aspirations and demands.
• Rise of Socialist Governments: Across Europe, socialist and radical governments were coming to power, influencing the political climate.
• War Fatigue: British soldiers were exhausted from the war, and the British economy was in ruins, weakening the resolve to maintain control over India.
• Anti-Imperialist Movements: There was a strong anti-imperialist sentiment in Southeast Asia, with countries like Vietnam and Indonesia resisting attempts to restore French and Dutch colonial rule.
• Fear of Unrest: Officials were apprehensive about a potential resurgence of unrest similar to the 1942 situation, but even more dangerous, with possible coordinated attacks on communications, agrarian revolts, labor issues, army discontent, and involvement of the Indian National Army (INA) veterans.
• Need for Elections: With the last elections held in 1934 for the center and 1937 for the provinces, there was a pressing need for new elections once the war concluded.
• Inevitable Retreat: The British would have had to withdraw eventually, but the Labour Government expedited this process.

Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials

• Winter of 1945-46: Elections were held during this period.
• Election Campaign: The campaign aimed to mobilize Indians against British rule rather than just asking for votes.
• Nationalist Sentiments: The campaign tapped into nationalist feelings by glorifying martyrs and condemning British officials for their repression during the 1942 Quit India movement.
• Martyrs and Memorials: Efforts were made to honor martyrs, set up memorials, and collect relief funds for those who suffered during the repression.
• Condemnation of Officials: The campaign targeted officials responsible for the repression, promising inquiries and threats of punishment.
• Impact on Morale: The speeches had a significant impact on the morale of the services, raising fears about the return of Congress ministries.
• INA Trials: The Indian National Army trials, also known as the Red Fort trials, involved British Indian courts-martial of INA officers for various charges including treason and murder.
• Public Trials: The trials were held in public, with the first and most famous trial taking place at the Red Fort in Delhi against the backdrop of general elections.
• Defendants: The first trial involved Colonel Prem Sahgal, Colonel Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, and Major General Shah Nawaz Khan, who had joined the INA after being taken as prisoners of war.
• Charges: The defendants were charged with waging war against the King-Emperor, murder, and abetment of murder.
• Public Sympathy: The trials garnered significant publicity, with public sympathy for the defendants and criticism of the trial grounds.
• Political Issue: The release of the defendants became a significant political issue for the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
• Government Policy Shift: Mass pressure against the trial of INA POWs led to a shift in government policy, initially planning public trials for hundreds of INA prisoners.
• Mutinies: Mutinies broke out in the Royal Indian Navy and the Army during the trial period, reflecting unrest among troops.
• Anti-Imperialist Sentiment: The use of Indian Army units to restore colonial rule in Vietnam and Indonesia contributed to anti-imperialist feelings among urban populations and the Army.

Congress Support for INA Prisoners:

• In September 1945, during the first postwar Congress session in Bombay, a resolution was passed showing strong support for the INA cause.
• The defense of INA prisoners in court was organized by prominent figures like Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju, Nehru, and Asaf Ali, leading to the formation of the INA Defence Committee.
• The INA Relief and Enquiry Committee provided small amounts of money and food, and assisted in arranging employment for those affected.
• Efforts were made to collect funds for the cause.

The INA Agitation—A Landmark on Many Counts:

• The campaign for the release of INA prisoners was marked by unprecedented high pitch and intensity, gaining wide publicity through various means such as press coverage, pamphlet distribution, public meetings, and celebrations of INA Day and INA week.
• The agitation extended beyond noncooperation and nonviolent protest to include mutinies and wavering support within the British Indian Army.
• Despite strong opposition, the court martial proceeded, sentencing the defendants to deportation for life. However, due to public pressure, the sentence was not carried out, leading to the release of all three defendants.
• The movement marked the last major campaign where Congress and the Muslim League aligned together, with wide geographical reach and participation from diverse social groups and political parties.
• Participation came from various sectors, including fund contributions from film stars,municipal committees, Indians living abroad, and gurudwaras, as well as political groups and student meetings.
• Support for the INA cause came from various groups including the Muslim League, Communist Party, Akalis, Hindu Mahasabha, and others.
• Even in traditional strongholds of the Raj, there was support for the INA cause, with government employees collecting funds and loyalists appealing to the Government to abandon trials for better Indo-British relations.
• The central theme became the right of Britain to decide matters concerning Indians, highlighting the political significance of the INA issue as increasingly an ‘Indian versus British’ concern.

Three Upsurges—Winter Of 1945-46

• The nationalist sentiment around the INA trials escalated into violent confrontations with authority during the winter of 1945-46.
• There were three major upsurges:
• November 21, 1945 in Calcutta over the INA trials.
• February 11, 1946 in Calcutta against the seven-year sentence given to INA officer Rashid Ali.
• February 18, 1946 in Bombay, where Royal Indian Navy Ratings went on strike.
• All three upsurges followed a similar three-stage pattern.

When A Group Defies Authority and Is Repressed

(1) Upsurge 1 (November 21, 1945):

• A student procession, including Forward Bloc sympathizers,Student Federation of India (SFI) activists, and Islamic College students, marched to Dalhousie Square in Calcutta, symbolizing anti-imperialist unity by tying together the League, Congress, and red flags.
• When the protestors refused to disperse, they were Lathi charged by the police.
• The protestors retaliated by throwing stones and brickbats, leading to police firing that resulted in the death of two individuals.

(2) Upsurge 2 (February 11, 1946):

• The protest was led by Muslim League students, with support from some Congress and communist students’ organizations.
• Following some arrests, the students defied Section 144, leading to more arrests and the agitating students being Lathi-charged.

(3) Upsurge 3: Naval Mutiny or RIN Revolt (February 18, 1946)

• The Royal Indian Navy mutiny, also known as the Bombay Mutiny, was a significant event where Indian sailors in the Royal Indian Navy went on strike and revolted on board ships and at shore establishments, starting from Bombay (now Mumbai) on February 18, 1946. The revolt quickly spread across British India, involving 78 ships, 20 shore establishments, and around 20,000 sailors.

Main reasons for the revolt included:

• Racial discrimination, with demands for equal pay for Indian and white soldiers.
• Poor quality of food provided to the sailors.
• Abuse and mistreatment by superior officers.
• The arrest of a sailor for writing “Quit India” on HMIS Talwar.
• The Indian National Army (INA) trials and the stories of Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA’s efforts during World War II, which were widely circulated and fueled discontent among the sailors.
• Demanding the withdrawal of Indian troops from Indonesia.
• Influence of the Royal Air Force Revolt of 1946, where British airmen in India protested against the slow pace of their demobilization and against being used to support continued British colonial rule.
• The immediate triggers of the revolt were related to food and living conditions. A Naval Central Strike Committee was formed on February 19, with Leading Signalman M.S. Khan and Petty Officer Telegraphist Madan Singh elected as President and Vice-President, respectively.
• In Karachi, the revolt began on the Royal Indian Navy ship HMIS Hindustan, which was taken over by mutineers. The revolt quickly spread to other ships and shore establishments.
• The strike received significant support from the Indian population, who provided food and supplies to the sailors. There were also demonstrations, including a one-day general strike in Bombay. The strike spread to other cities and was joined by the Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces.
• In Madras and Poona, there were revolts within the British garrisons of the Indian Army. Rioting occurred from Karachi to Calcutta, with mutineers symbolizing unity by hoisting flags of the Congress, Muslim League, and the Communist Party of India.
• British Prime Minister Clement Attlee ordered the Royal Navy to suppress the revolt. Admiral J.H. Godfrey commanded the Royal Indian Navy to enforce submission. The Royal Air Force also showed force over Bombay harbour.
• The revolt resulted in the deaths of seven RIN sailors and one officer. It was eventually called off after negotiations between the Naval Central Strike Committee and leaders like Vallabhbhai Patel and Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who urged the strikers to end their actions.
• Despite assurances from the Congress and the Muslim League, many strikers faced arrests, courts martial, and dismissals from service.

Lack of Support:

• The mutineers in the armed forces received no support from national leaders and were largely leaderless.
• Mahatma Gandhi condemned the riots and the ratings’ revolt, criticizing the strikers for revolting without the call of a “prepared revolutionary party” and without the “guidance and intervention” of political leaders.
• Gandhi criticized local Indian National Congress leader Aruna Asaf Ali, who supported the mutineers, for her approach to uniting Hindus and Muslims.
• The Muslim League also attacked the mutiny, arguing that the unrest of the sailors was not best expressed on the streets.
• The legitimacy of the movement was seen to require recognized political leadership to avoid disruption and maintain consensus.
• Historians later concluded that the mainstream political parties were discomfited by the public outpourings, which indicated their weakening hold over the masses.
• The Communist Party of India supported the naval ratings and mobilized workers in their favor.
• The Congress and Muslim League, the two principal bourgeois parties, refused to support the ratings, fearing the class content of the uprising.
• Aruna Asaf Ali was the only prominent nationalist leader to support the mutineers.
• The Communist Party portrayed the RIN Revolt as a spontaneous nationalist uprising with the potential to prevent the partition of India, claiming it was betrayed by nationalist leaders.
• The RIN Revolt has been renamed the Naval Uprising, with the mutineers honored for their role in India’s independence.

When the City People Join In:

• This phase was marked by a strong anti-British sentiment, leading to the near paralysis of Calcutta and Bombay.
• There were various activities such as meetings, processions, strikes, hartals, attacks on Europeans, police stations, shops, tram depots, railway stations, banks, and forcible stopping of rail and road traffic by squatting on tracks and barricading streets.

When People in Other Parts of the Country Express Sympathy and Solidarity:

• Students boycotted classes and organized hartals and processions to express sympathy with other students and the ratings.
• There were sympathetic strikes in military establishments in Karachi, Madras, Visakhapatnam, Calcutta, Delhi, Cochin, Jamnagar, Andaman, Bahrain, and Aden.
• Strikes by the Royal Indian Air Force occurred in Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, Jessore, and Ambala.
• Patel and Jinnah convinced the ratings to surrender on February 23, assuring that national parties would prevent any victimization.

Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the Three Upsurges: The three upsurges were significant in many ways:

• Fearless action by masses was an expression of militancy in the popular mind.
• Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating effect on the minds of people.
• RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end of British rule.

These upsurges prompted the British to extend some concessions:

• On December 1, 1946, the Government announced that only those INA members accused of murder or brutal treatment of fellow prisoners would be brought to trial.
• Imprisonment sentences passed against the first batch were remitted in January 1947.
• Indian soldiers were withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia by February 1947.
• The decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken in January 1946.
• The decision to send a parliamentary delegation to India was taken in November 1946.

But could the communal unity witnessed during these events, if built upon, have offered a way out of the communal deadlock?

• These upsurges were distinguishable from the earlier activity because of their form of articulation.
• These were violent challenges to the authority while the earlier activity was a peaceful demonstration of national solidarity.
• These upsurges were in the nature of direct and violent conflict with authority, which had obvious limitations.
• Only the more militant sections could participate.
• These upsurges were short-lived and were confined to a few urban centres while the general INA agitation reached the remotest villages.
• Communal unity witnessed was more organisational than a unity among the people.
• Despite considerable erosion of the morale of the bureaucracy, the British infrastructure to repress was intact.
• They were soon able to control the situation.
• It was a Maratha battalion in Bombay that rounded up the ratings and restored them to their barracks.

Congress Strategy:

• The Congress did not officially support these upsurges because of their tactics and timing.
• Negotiations had been an integral part of the Congress strategy, to be explored before a mass movement could be launched, especially when the British were seen to be preparing to leave soon.
• Congress indifference to the revolutionary situation arose because of two considerations—the situation would go out of its control and that disciplined armed forces were vital in a free India.
• Also if the Congress leaders had not surrendered to power play, a different path to independence would have emerged.
• But actually these upsurges were an extension of earlier nationalist activity fostered by the Congress through its election campaign, its advocacy of the INA cause and highlighting of the excesses of 1942.
• Gandhi remarked that the mutiny was badly advised: if they mutinied for India’s freedom, they were doubly wrong; if they had any grievances, they should have waited for the guidance of leaders.

Election Results

Congress’ Performance:

• Secured 91% of non-Muslim votes.
• Won 57 out of 102 seats in the Central Assembly.
• Gained majority in most provinces during provincial elections, except in Bengal, Sindh, and Punjab. Majorities included NWFP and Assam, which were claimed for Pakistan.
• In Punjab, a coalition led by Khizr Hyatt Khan(Unionist-Congress-Akali) took power.

Muslim League’s Performance:

• Obtained 86.6% of Muslim votes.
• Secured all 30 reserved seats in the Central Assembly.
• Achieved majority in Bengal and Sindh during provincial elections.
• Established itself as the dominant party among Muslims, unlike in 1937.

Significant Feature of Elections:

• The elections were marked by communal voting, contrasting with earlier anti-British unity movements.
• Factors included separate electorates and a limited franchise, where less than 10% of the population could vote for provinces and less than 1% for the Central Assembly.

1946 Cabinet Mission to India

• The Cabinet Mission of 1946 aimed to discuss and plan the transfer of power from the British Government to Indian leadership, paving the way for independence.
• Formulated under Clement Attlee, the UK Prime Minister, the mission included Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A. V. Alexander, while Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate.

Purpose and Proposals: The mission aimed to:

• Hold discussions with elected representatives to agree on the method for framing the constitution.
• Establish a constitution body.
• Set up an Executive Council with support from major Indian parties.
• The mission engaged with the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League to discuss power-sharing arrangements and the future structure of British India.
• The Congress wanted a strong central government, while the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, sought to keep India united with political safeguards for Muslims, fearing a potential ‘Hindu Raj’ after British withdrawal.
• After initial discussions, the mission proposed its plan on 16 May 1946, following the Simla Conference of 1945.

Plan of 16 May, 1946:

• A united Dominion of India, structured as a loose confederation of provinces, would be granted independence.
• Muslim-majority provinces would be grouped: Sind, Punjab, and North-West Frontier Province would form one group, while Bengal and Assam would form another.
• Hindu-majority provinces in central and southern India would form a separate group.
• The Central government in Delhi would manage nationwide affairs such as defense, currency, and diplomacy, while other powers would rest with the provinces, coordinated by groups.

Consensus Breakdown:

• The agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League collapsed because Congress rejected the idea of grouping Muslim-majority and Hindu-majority provinces for balance at the Central Legislature.
• The Muslim League insisted on this balance as a safeguard against Hindu dominance.

British Proposal of 16 June 1946:

• Faced with the deadlock, the British proposed an alternative plan on 16 June 1946, suggesting a division of India into Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority regions, with the latter becoming Pakistan.
• A list of princely states was also created, outlining their options to accede to either dominion or gain independence.

Reactions and Acceptance:

• The approval of these plans would shape the new government's structure.
• However, the Congress Working Committee did not accept either plan.
• On 24 May 1946, the committee expressed its inability to give a final opinion on the establishment of a Provisional Government and a Constituent Assembly without a clearer picture of connected issues.
• In response to the June plan on 25 June 1946, the committee rejected the idea of an interim government based on artificial parity or communal veto, asserting the Congress’s national character.
• Despite these rejections, the Congress decided to join the proposed Constituent Assembly to draft a Constitution for a free, united, and democratic India.

Congress Position:

• On 10 July, Jawaharlal Nehru announced that the Congress would participate in the Constituent Assembly but reserved the right to modify the Cabinet Mission Plan as deemed necessary.
• The Congress dismissed the June 16 plan, viewing it as a fragmentation of India into smaller states.

Formation of Interim Government (1946):

• On 15 June 1946, the Viceroy invited 14 individuals to join the interim government after discussions. The invitees included:
• Congress Members: Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, and Hari Krishna Mahtab.
• Muslim League Members: Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan, Mohammed Ismail Khan, Khwaja Sir Nazimuddin, and Abdul Rab Nishtar.
• Representatives from Other Communities: Sardar Baldev Singh (Sikhs), Sir N.P. Engineer (Parsis), Jagjivan Ram (scheduled castes), and John Mathai (Christians).

Formation of a Government:

• The Viceroy aimed to organize the transfer of power to a Congress-League coalition.
• However, League president  Muhammad Ali Jinnah rejected the Congress's conditional approval and withdrew the League's support.
• On 12 August 1946, the Viceroy invited Nehru to form the provisional government.
• After discussions with Nehru, the names of 12 members for the interim government were announced, including Sardar Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and others.

Key Members of the Interim Government:

• Jawaharlal Nehru became the head of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, holding executive authority.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel served as the Home member.
• Congress-led governments were formed in most provinces, including the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab (in coalition with the Shiromani Akali Dal and the Unionist Muslim League).
• The League led governments in Bengal and Sind.
• The Constituent Assembly was tasked with drafting a new constitution for India.

Coalition and Breakdown:

• Jinnah and the League criticized the new government and promised to push for Pakistan by any means necessary. This led to unrest in Punjab and Bengal, affecting cities like Delhi, Bombay, and Calcutta.
• On Direct Action Day(August 16, 1946), organized by the League, Calcutta experienced severe riots and violence between Hindus and Muslims. This day marked the beginning of The Week of the Long Knives. The 'Direct Action' was intended to demonstrate Muslim strength to both the British and Congress, as Muslims feared persecution by the Hindu majority if the British withdrew.
• Communal riots spread across India.
• Viceroy Wavell delayed the Central government's attempts to restore order, leaving the situation to the governors, who took minimal action. To curb the violence, Wavell urged Nehru to invite the League into the government. Despite opposition from Patel and other Congress leaders, Nehru agreed in hopes of maintaining communal peace.
• League leaders, under Liaquat Ali Khan, entered the council, but the coalition was marked by discord. The League and Congress held separate meetings, and both sides blocked major proposals from each other, reflecting their deep ideological rifts.
• With the arrival of the new Viceroy,Lord Mountbatten of Burma, in early 1947, Congress leaders deemed the coalition unworkable. This assessment led to the eventual proposal and acceptance of India's partition.