French Revolution: National Convention (1792-1795) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The National Convention (Sept. 21, 1792 to Oct. 25, 1795)

• The National Convention convened on September 21, 1792, following the disbandment of the Legislative Assembly. It was called to create a new constitution due to the suspension of Louis XVI. The Convention's initial action was to abolish the monarchy and declare France a Republic. It issued a decree for the permanent banishment of émigrés and adopted a revolutionary calendar starting from the republic's founding. A committee was tasked with drafting a new constitution.
• However, the Convention's main goal of framing a constitution was delayed because of intense disputes between the Girondists and the Jacobins, both republican factions. The Girondists aimed for a stable government and an end to the violent excesses, seeking to restore the Convention's authority and bring the Paris Commune to justice. In contrast, the Jacobins were more radical, prioritizing the Revolution's success by any means necessary, including supporting the Commune's dominance and using violent tactics. Their strength came from strong organization and ties with the Commune.
• Between these two factions was the Plain, consisting of many undecided members. Initially, the Girondists held the upper hand in the Convention, but power eventually shifted to the Jacobins.

Execution of Louis XVI

• After the Convention unanimously voted to abolish royalty in France, the fate of Louis XVI became a contentious issue. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, advocated for the king's execution without a trial, while the Girondists preferred to let the people decide his fate. This disagreement deepened the rift between the two factions.
• Ultimately, the Jacobins prevailed, and a sham trial was conducted, resulting in Louis XVI being found guilty of high treason and conspiracy against the nation's liberty. He was sentenced to death and executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793.
• The execution of Louis XVI has been described as both a crime and a blunder. Despite being portrayed as a traitor, he was a well-intentioned king who genuinely wanted to serve his country. Executing him without a fair trial was an act of cruelty and injustice. Moreover, it backfired, as it did not advance the Revolution's cause but instead plunged it into greater peril both domestically and internationally.
• In France, many provinces revolted against the Republic for murdering the king, while abroad, the threat to monarchies united Europe against the Republic. This led to the Reign of Terror, which, instead of solidifying the Republic, contributed to its collapse. The downfall of the monarchy resulted in chaos, from which France could only be rescued by military dictatorship.

First Coalition against France (Consequences of the Execution of Louis XVI)

War of Principles:

• Feeling empowered by their recent achievements, the French republicans adopted a confrontational stance, challenging the established order in Europe.
• They issued propagandist decrees urging people to revolt against their rulers and even offered military support.
• This aggressive posture posed a significant threat to the stability of other governments, prompting Republican France to declare a war of principles against monarchical Europe.
• The goal was to establish liberty and equality across Europe and dismantle absolutism.
• The French Convention declared that any people who rejected liberty and equality, choosing to preserve their princes and privileged classes, would be treated as enemies.

Why France Desired War:

• The war declared by France was not solely a conflict between a republic and monarchies; it also involved material interests.
• Initially, it began as a war of propaganda but evolved into a war of conquest. France saw war as a necessity for the Republic's survival.
• The Revolution had disrupted trade and industry in France, leaving many without peaceful means of livelihood.
• Disbanding a victorious army and leaving soldiers without resources or employment would have been risky.
• Thus, France drifted into a policy of war, seeking further conquests abroad and temporary relief from internal strife.
• The aim was to extend the country's boundaries to natural frontiers: the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Rhine.
• In invading Belgium, they presented the doctrine of natural frontiers, while the doctrine of natural rights was used to open up the Scheldt. Beneath these justifications lay traditional French policy objectives.

Threats to England and Holland:

• France's aggressive stance, combined with the outrage following Louis XVI's execution, united Europe against France.
• War already existed with Austria and Prussia. The French had conquered the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium).
• However, the French occupation of Belgium threatened both England and Holland.
• Moreover, France challenged England by declaring the Scheldt open to all nations. England had guaranteed the closing of the Scheldt to protect Holland's interests, prompting serious concern over France's actions.
• The execution of Louis XVI inflamed English public opinion, leading to the expulsion of the French ambassador in London.
• Consequently, the French Convention declared war against England and Holland.

Divergent Interests of the Allies:

• In response, European powers formed the First Coalition against France, consisting of England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, and Spain.
• While the allies shared the common goal of safeguarding monarchical principles in Europe, their material interests differed.
• Austrians aimed to expel the French from Belgium, Sardinia sought to protect Savoy from French control, and England wanted to prevent France from re-establishing Antwerp as a rival port to London.
• England perceived a threat to her commercial prosperity from the opening of the Scheldt and insecurity from the French occupation of Belgium, which motivated her participation in the war.

War led to French Defeat:

• The war resulted in a defeat for France, forcing them to evacuate Belgium.

Immediate Consequence of the Execution of Louis XVI:

• The immediate consequence of Louis XVI's execution was a significant increase in France's enemies, leading to a coalition of European powers against her.
• Domestically, peasants in the south revolted against the Republic, viewing it as the murderer of the king and the destroyer of the Church. This dual threat, both internal and external, precipitated the Reign of Terror.
• In response to this national crisis, the first Committee of Public Safety was established, consisting of nine members with dictatorial powers to eliminate enemies of the Republic, both foreign and domestic.
• The aim was to ensure a strong government capable of concentrating the nation's full force on the problem of national salvation.
• Setbacks suffered by France intensified the conflict between the Girondists and Jacobins, with each side accusing the other of betrayal to the Revolutionary cause.
• The Girondists sought to limit the power of the Paris Commune, arguing that Paris, being one of eighty-three departments, should have only one eighty-third of influence.
• In contrast, the Jacobins, recognizing the urgency of the situation, decided on a decisive action. They organized an insurrection against the Girondists, and the outraged Paris mob invaded the Convention, forcing the arrest of thirty-one Girondist leaders.

Fall of the Girondists:

• The Girondists fell because they were less organized than the Jacobins and pursued revolutionary goals without resorting to mob violence.
• They were impractical idealists who failed to propose an effective and vigorous program.
• Their downfall left the Jacobins in control, with no opposition to the violent measures that marked the beginning of the Reign of Terror in France, dominated by figures like Robespierre, Danton, and Marat.

Reign of Terror (June 2, 1792-1794)

The Jacobin Dictatorship:

• With the expulsion of the Girondists from the Convention, the moderate republican party disappeared from the assembly, marking the beginning of a phase in the Revolution known as the Reign of Terror. This period is often considered the darkest and most terrible time of the Revolution.
• During the Reign of Terror, France faced grave dangers both from within and outside its borders.

Internal Dangers:

• The Commune of Paris exerted its tyranny and supremacy, provoking various Departments. Cities like Lyons and several others rose against the Revolutionists, aiming to diminish the Commune's power. They argued that Paris should not have more authority than the other departments.
• This political civil war was further exacerbated by a civil war rooted in religion. Peasants, incited by non-juring priests, revolted against compulsory military service. They demanded the abolition of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and proclaimed Louis XVII as king. Thus, the movement was both Catholic and royalist in nature.

External Dangers:

• The Convention faced a coalition of European powers threatening France from all directions. This external hostility compounded the internal dangers, necessitating a strong response.
• To navigate this crisis, two essential measures were required: a vigorous defense of French territory and the repression of elements within the country opposed to the Revolution. A divided France could not withstand a united Europe.
• The Jacobins, focused on defending France and preserving the Republic, resolved to rule through terror, aiming to intimidate their enemies into submission.

The Committee of Public Safety

• The Jacobins established a Committee of Public Safety, composed of twelve members with nearly limitless executive power. This committee became extremely powerful, enforcing its decrees even upon the Convention itself, with Maximilien Robespierre as its leader.
• The Committee of Public Safety was the foundation of the Reign of Terror, providing France with a strong government that restored national unity through fear.
• To address internal threats, the Committee created a machinery of terror to systematically suppress all anti-revolutionary elements.
• Key components of this machinery included:
  • The Law of Suspects, allowing the arrest of anyone suspected of supporting the monarchy or being hostile to the Republic.
  • Revolutionary Tribunal, an extraordinary court for the swift trial of suspects, often making a mockery of justice.
  • Square of the Revolution, where victims were executed by guillotine. Over two thousand people were executed by the Revolutionary Tribunal in Paris.
• As suspects were sent to the guillotine, the Committee of Public Safety also suppressed internal revolts. These violent actions aimed to eliminate opposition elements that could hinder military preparations against external enemies.

Foreign Threats Averted:

• The Committee took strong measures to counter external enemies.
• To sever ties with the royalist faction, the Jacobins abolished the old calendar and introduced a new one based on natural seasons. The new era began not from the birth of Christ but from the birth of the Republic on September 21, 1792.

A Split in the Jacobin Camp:

• The military successes of the French army led to the decline of the Reign of Terror, which had justified its existence by the perceived threats to France.
• With internal and external dangers diminished, the issue of bloody repression caused a rift among the Jacobins.
• The most radical faction, known as the Hebertists, held influence due to their control over the Commune of Paris. They advocated for extreme social changes, particularly against the Roman Catholic Church. They denounced Catholicism as aristocratic, promoted the worship of reason, and ordered the closure of all places of worship in Paris.
• These radical measures risked alienating sincere believers. In response, Robespierre condemned the Hebertists, leading to their execution.
• The Dantonists, advocating for moderation, also fell victim to Robespierre. Danton and his followers supported the Terror as long as it was necessary, but once France was no longer in danger, they sought to ease the system's harshness and adopt a more humane approach.
• Robespierre accused Danton of representing a dangerous policy of moderation and ordered his execution along with his supporters.
• Danton was a prominent Jacobin leader whose energy was crucial in saving France from the Prussian invasion in 1792 and establishing a strong government. He possessed statesman-like qualities and attempted to reconcile differences between the Jacobins and Girondists for France's benefit.
• Until the end, Danton opposed excessive severity and the reckless policies that turned all of Europe against France. His fall marked the loss of a statesman for France.
• With Danton's demise, Robespierre became the dominant figure. He led the Jacobins and wielded enough influence to control the Convention, the Commune of Paris, and the Committee of Public Safety.
• Robespierre abolished the worship of Reason and initiated the recognition of the Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul by the Convention.
• He intensified the Revolutionary Tribunal's activities, stripping it of legal formalities. Guilt no longer required proof; the jurors' "enlightened conscience" determined guilt.
• This reorganized Tribunal was responsible for 1,376 executions in just 45 days.

The Thermidorian Reaction (July 27, 1794—October 26, 1795)

• After Robespierre's fall, France experienced a milder regime. The Reign of Terror gradually diminished as the system's horrific actions became widely discredited, and public opinion turned against it.
• The Thermidorians, those responsible for Robespierre's downfall, gained control and eliminated the last remnants of terrorism.
• The Commune of Paris, a stronghold of the mob, was disbanded, the Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended, the Committee of Public Safety's powers were curtailed, and the Jacobin Club was closed.
• Additionally, the decline of Terror was attributed to the successes of the French military abroad. With external threats neutralized, there was no longer a need for the violent repression of "suspects" and opposition elements.

The Convention Completes the Constitution

• The Convention finally addressed its long-overdue responsibility of framing a Constitution for republican France. The executive power was assigned to a Directory composed of five members, while the legislative authority was divided between two Houses. To prevent the emergence of a monarchist legislature, the Convention mandated that two-thirds of the new Legislature be elected from among the deputies of the current Convention. This decision faced unpopularity, leading to an insurrection by the bourgeoisie and royalists against the Convention. At that time, Napoleon Bonaparte was in Paris and was tasked with defending the Convention against the rioting mob. He successfully dispersed the crowd, saved the Convention, and embarked on his remarkable career.
• On October 26, the Convention declared itself dissolved.

Achievements of the Convention

• The Convention had executed a king and established a Republic.
• It had quelled internal party conflicts by expelling the Girondist leaders, organized a strong provisional government, and instituted a Reign of Terror to eliminate all anti-revolutionary elements within France.
• Despite facing a vast coalition of hostile European powers, the Convention displayed unexpected energy in maintaining the country's integrity and independence during a time of imminent dissolution.
• However, in achieving this monumental task, it gained a reputation for cruelty and tyranny.

On the peaceful front, the Convention's accomplishments were also significant. It introduced the metric system, the most refined system of weights and measures, and worked on the Civil Code aimed at establishing social life on the principle of equality. Although Napoleon later completed the Civil Code and garnered the credit, the Convention laid the groundwork. It drafted an impressive Scheme of national education but could not implement it due to a lack of funds.

Among the invaluable institutions created by the Convention were the Normal School, the Polytechnic School, the Museum of the Louvre, the National Library, and the Institute. Ultimately, it also framed a new constitution for France.

The Directory (1795-1799)

According to the new constitution drawn up by the Convention on October 26, 1795, the executive power was entrusted to a board of five directors, called the Directory.

Formation of the Directory

• The Constitution of 1795 established the Directory, a five-member executive body, to lead France.

Challenges and Military Campaigns

• The Directory faced immediate challenges, primarily the ongoing war against England, Austria, and Sardinia.
• Due to France's lack of a strong navy, the Directory focused on defeating Austrian forces.
• General Lazare Carnot proposed a dual offensive against Austria, one through Germany and the other through Italy.

Napoleon's Rise to Prominence

• Napoleon Bonaparte, appointed to lead the Italian campaign, achieved significant victories that boosted his reputation.
• Born in 1769 in Corsica, Napoleon rose through the military ranks, gaining fame for his defense of the Convention in 1795 and later for his successes in Italy.

Expedition to Egypt:

• After his victories in Italy, Napoleon was tasked with leading an army to invade England. However, due to the challenges of a direct invasion, he proposed an expedition to Egypt, aiming to undermine British power in the East.
• In May 1798, Napoleon set sail for Egypt, capturing Malta along the way.

Conquest of Egypt:

• Upon reaching Egypt, Napoleon won the Battle of the Pyramids, establishing control over the Nile basin.
• However, his fleet was destroyed by British Admiral Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, cutting off Napoleon and his troops from France.
• After a failed invasion of Syria, Napoleon returned to France, leaving his army behind.

Decline of the Directory:

• The Directory struggled due to internal conflicts among the Directors and constant threats from royalists and radical republicans.
• It resorted to coup d'états to maintain power, including expulsions of royalist and radical members.
• During Napoleon's absence, the Directory engaged in aggressive foreign policy, invading Switzerland, reorganizing the government of Holland, and annexing regions like Geneva.

Coalition Against France:

• The Directory's actions, coupled with news of Napoleon's troubles in Egypt, led to a new coalition against France, including England, Austria, and Russia.
• This coalition successfully reversed many of Napoleon's gains in Italy and elsewhere.

Collapse of the Directory:

• The Directory lost public support due to its unpopular policies, including forced loans and the suppression of radical movements.
• It became increasingly reliant on the military for support.
• Amidst this unpopularity,Abbé Sieyès, one of the Directors, sought to establish a new government and found an ally in Napoleon.

Coup d'état and Establishment of the Consulate:

• On November 9, 1799, Sieyès and Napoleon orchestrated a coup d'état, dispersing the legislature and overthrowing the Directory.
• A provisional Consulate was established to draft a new constitution and govern France.
• Sieyès, Ducos, and Bonaparte were appointed as consuls, marking the end of the Directory and the beginning of a new phase in French governance.