British Democratic Politics 1815-1850: Chartists | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Chartism

• Chartism was a significant working-class movement in Britain that aimed for political reform between 1838 and 1848. It is considered the first organized labor movement in modern British history.
• Support for Chartism peaked in the years 1839, 1842, and 1848 when petitions signed by millions of working people were presented to the House of Commons. The strategy behind these petitions was to demonstrate widespread support through mass meetings and put pressure on politicians to consider the demands.

Chartism primarily relied on constitutional methods to achieve its goals, although some individuals within the movement resorted to insurrectionary activities. The movement derived its name from the People's Charter of 1838, a formal petition prepared by Feargus O’Connor and other leaders. This charter outlined six key reforms aimed at making the political system more democratic:

Key Aims of the People’s Charter

• Adult Male Franchise: A vote for every man aged twenty-one years.
• The Secret Ballot: A system to protect electors in the exercise of their vote.
• No Property Qualification for Members of Parliament: Allowing individuals without property to become MPs.
• Salary to Members of Parliament: Providing salaries to enable working-class individuals to serve as MPs.
• Equal Constituencies: Ensuring equal representation for the same number of electors, preventing smaller constituencies from overpowering larger ones.
• Annual Parliament Elections: Requiring elections every year to reduce bribery and intimidation and to hold elected officials accountable more frequently.

These reforms aimed to create a more equitable and representative political system, reflecting the interests and needs of the working class.

Causes of the Chartist Movement

The Chartist movement aimed to secure political rights for the working class, but its demands were rooted in both political and economic factors.

Political Causes of the Chartist Movement

Dissatisfaction with the 1832 Reform Act:

• The 1832 Reform Act was expected to extend voting rights but only benefited property owners, leaving the working class disappointed.
• The Chartists believed that the lack of political rights was the root cause of their social and economic problems.
• The working class had supported the middle class in the push for the Reform Act, only to find themselves excluded from its benefits.
• This experience motivated the working class to demand their own political rights.

Actions of the Whig Government:

• The Whig governments of the 1830s reinforced the working class's sense of betrayal.
• The introduction of the New Poor Law in 1834, which eliminated outdoor relief and forced the poor into workhouses, fueled discontent.
• Opposition to the New Poor Law, particularly in northern England, helped mobilize support for Chartism.

Disappointment with Subsequent Reforms:

• Later reforms were seen as disappointing and detrimental to the working class.
• Parliamentary representation for the middle class led to legislation that favored their interests.
• The working class believed that their issues could be addressed through political means such as voting rights and parliamentary reforms.

Failure of Trade Unions:

• Early trade unions struggled to gain traction.
• The repeal of the Combination Acts in the 1820s allowed unions to form, but they faced numerous restrictions.
• Many unions established post-1825 were ineffective in negotiating with employers.

Economic Causes of the Chartist Movement

• The Industrial Revolution and urbanization led to a massive influx of workers into industrial towns, where they encountered significant hardships.
• Workers faced low wages while industrialists reaped substantial profits. The new factory conditions of the 19th century, characterized by strict discipline, low wages, intermittent unemployment, and rising prices for essential goods, were deeply resented by the working class.
• Traditional hand-workers, such as London silk-weavers, suffered greatly due to competition from machinery. With limited options available, they could either join the ranks of factory workers or seek assistance from local parishes.
• The persistence of the 1815 Corn Laws, despite reforms in the 1820s, kept food prices artificially high. This not only depressed domestic markets for manufactured goods but also negatively impacted employment levels.
• Foreign markets were also affected, leading to reduced factory output and diminished exports.
• The 1830s were marked by a series of poor harvests, exacerbating distress among the working class. This period also witnessed fiscal crises, and although the Whigs were in power from 1830 to 1841, their economic strategies were weak, leaving a significant deficit.
• The Whigs made no substantial efforts to reform banking or currency systems, which had a profound effect on the working class.
• Reforms were also necessary in areas such as banking, customs, and taxation. Indirect taxation, which disproportionately affected the poor, was the primary form of taxation during this time. The abolition of income tax in 1816 further aggravated the situation.
• As a result, the real value of wages declined, and bad harvests compounded the difficulties faced by the working class.
• In a significant meeting in 1838, Joseph Stephens emphasized the importance of manhood suffrage, stating that Chartism was fundamentally about basic needs like food. This highlights the crucial role of economic factors in the emergence of Chartism.

Social Causes of the Chartist Movement

• The spread of socialist ideas in Britain contributed to the Chartist movement. Socialists highlighted the growing disparity between the rich and the poor, garnering public support for workers' rights.
• The widening gap between the wealthy and the impoverished fueled resentment among the working class.
• The Chartist movement marked the beginning of the conflict between the labor class and the capitalist class, as it sought to address the grievances of the working population.

Course of the Chartist Movement

Formation of the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union (1834):

• Robert Owen established the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union to unify all industries under workers' control. Despite organizing strikes, the union failed to achieve its objectives.

People’s Charter of 1838

• Written by William Lovett and others, the People’s Charter outlined the six main aims of the Chartist movement, becoming a famous political manifesto in 19th-century Britain.

First Chartists’ Petition (1839):

• Launched in Glasgow, the People’s Charter gained widespread support. A petition signed by 1.3 million people was presented to Parliament, but it was rejected. The Chartists continued to campaign for their demands.

Newport Rising (1839):

• A violent uprising led by John Frost aimed to liberate Chartist prisoners. The uprising failed, with many Chartists killed or arrested. Despite this setback, the movement remained active.

Second Chartists’ Petition (1842):

• A petition with over three million signatures was submitted but rejected by Parliament. The year saw widespread strikes demanding the implementation of the Charter alongside wage restoration. Despite arrests of Chartist leaders, the movement persisted.

Mid-Forties:

• Chartist activity continued despite arrests. The National Land Company was proposed, allowing workers to buy shares for land settlement. However, the scheme was shut down by Parliament.

Third Chartists’ Petition (1848):

• With Feargus O’Connor elected as an MP and revolutionary fervor in Europe, Chartism surged again. A mass meeting on April 10, 1848, aimed to present a third petition, claiming 6 million signatures. However, the House of Commons reported only 1.9 million, undermining Chartism’s credibility.

Role of the Press:

• Chartist periodicals like the Northern Star and the Poor Man’s Guardian played a crucial role in spreading the movement's ideas, justifying the Charter's demands, and reaching a wide audience.

Causes of the Failure of the Chartist Movement

Lack of Able and Experienced Leaders:

• The leaders of the Chartist Movement often disagreed with each other, leading to a lack of unity and direction.
• There was no strong or persuasive speaker capable of effectively communicating the movement's objectives to the public.

Responsibility of O’Connor:

• Chartist leader Feargus O’Connor was seen as partly responsible for the movement's failure due to his self-importance and pride.
• He was associated with radical groups that supported reform through any means, including violence.
• However, the decline of the movement was too complex to be attributed to O’Connor alone.

Factionalism:

• The Chartist Movement was plagued by internal divisions, with different factions advocating conflicting approaches.
• There was a wide range of intellectual and ideological differences within Chartism, with some members demanding:
  • Nationalisation of land
  • Currency reform
  • Repeal of the Poor Land Amendment Act
• Others, like Lovett and the London Working Men’s Association, focused on social change.
• In 1839, a split occurred between those who believed in moral force and constitutional means and those who advocated for physical force and armed revolt.
• The main challenge was how to achieve revolutionary goals through constitutional means, which ultimately failed to gain parliamentary support for the Charter.

Lack of Public Support:

• The middle classes either ignored, rejected, or condemned Chartism due to its sometimes violent protests and other socio-economic factors.
• Chartism remained a form of political propaganda without widespread support from the British public.
• The demands of the Chartists appeared too drastic and unusual to many people in Britain.

Use of Violence:

• The use of violence by some Chartists prompted the government to implement strict measures to suppress the movement.
• The government responded firmly and calmly to the challenges posed by Chartism.

Forged Signatures:

• The use of forged signatures in the Chartist signature campaign damaged their credibility and brought disgrace to the movement.
• Chartism and its supporters were ridiculed following the mass meeting of 1848 and the failure of the Land Plan.

Improved Socio-Economic Conditions:

• After 1842, socio-economic conditions began to improve, reducing the mass support for Chartism.
• The prosperity of this period diminished the urgency for the reforms that Chartism sought.
• The development of the railway system and other changes fragmented the unity of the working classes, further weakening the movement's base.

Chartist Movement: Not a Complete Failure

• Although the Chartist movement did not achieve its immediate goals or bring about direct reforms, its impact on society was significant. It was the first organized labor movement in Britain, fostering a sense of cooperation and unity among workers and laying the groundwork for future democratic developments.
• During the 1830s and 1840s, political elites viewed the Chartists as a serious threat to national stability. However, after the movement declined post-1848, its demands became less alarming and were gradually adopted by other reformers. Middle-class parliamentary radicals continued to advocate for an extension of the franchise after 1848.
• In the years following the Chartist movement, many of its demands were eventually met. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 addressed several of the movement's goals, such as granting urban working men the right to vote. By 1918, five of the six Chartist demands had been fulfilled, with the only unachieved goal being the call for annual parliamentary elections.

Key Developments After the Chartist Movement:

• Representation of the People Act 1918: This act expanded the right to vote to all men over 21 and to women over 30. It took another decade for women to gain the vote on the same basis as men with the Representation of the People Act 1928. The 1918 Act is seen as a significant step towards fulfilling the Chartist goals, particularly in extending the franchise to more working men.
• Secret Ballot and Ballot Act 1872: The Ballot Act 1872 introduced the secret ballot to protect voters from undue influence, a concern that arose after skilled workers gained the right to vote in 1867.
• Property Qualification for Members of Parliament Act 1858: This act removed the requirement for MPs to own property, making the position more accessible.
• Parliament Act 1911: This act introduced parliamentary salaries for MPs, further professionalizing the role.
• Redistribution of Seats Act 1885: This act aimed to create constituencies of roughly equal size, addressing the imbalance created by the 1867 Reform Act, which had extended the franchise without significantly altering constituency boundaries.

Indirect Influences of the Chartist Movement:

• The passing of various acts such as the Factory Act, Mines Act, and Public Health Act, as well as the abolition of the Corn Laws, were indirectly inspired by the Chartist movement. These developments improved the conditions of workers and raised awareness about their plight.
• Participation in the Chartist Movement empowered some working men, teaching them public speaking, writing, and the ability to express the concerns of the working class confidently. Many former Chartists went on to become influential figures in journalism, poetry, ministry, and local government.
• Chartism also influenced some British colonies. Leaders who were transported to Australia spread their beliefs, contributing to the establishment of the Victorian parliament with near-universal male suffrage and secret ballot. In African colonies after 1920, instances of 'colonial chartism' emerged, advocating for improved welfare, education, freedom of speech, and increased political representation for native populations.