Imperialism and Colonialism: The Great Game | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding "The Great Game"

"The Great Game" refers to the competition and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for control over Central Asia. This period is seen as starting from the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 and ending with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. The term was popularized by Arthur Conolly, a British intelligence officer.

British-Russian Rivalry in Afghanistan

• The British were worried that Russian expansion in Central Asia could threaten India, which was the most important part of the British Empire.
• The British feared that Russia would conquer the Central Asian khanates (Khiva, Bokhara, Khokand) and then use Afghanistan as a base to invade India.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842):

• In 1838, the British launched the First Anglo-Afghan War to install a pro-British ruler, Shuja Shah, in Afghanistan.
• The British faced strong resistance, and by 1842, they had to retreat from Kabul.
• The retreat was disastrous, with most of the British force killed by Afghan fighters. Only William Brydon survived among the Europeans.

Shift in British Policy:

• After the humiliating defeat, the British were more cautious about Afghanistan.
• After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Afghanistan was seen as a buffer state against Russian expansion.

Russian Expansion:

• Russia continued to expand southward, formally annexing Tashkent in 1865 and Samarkand in 1868.
• By this time, Russian influence extended to the northern bank of the Amu Darya River.

British Concerns and Actions:

• British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli was worried about Russian expansion in Central Asia. He wanted to strengthen British influence and counter Russia’s moves.
• In 1876, he made Queen Victoria Empress of India, elevating her status to match the Russian Emperor's.
• In 1878, during the Great Eastern Crisis, the Russians sent a diplomatic mission to Kabul without invitation.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880):

• In response, Britain sent a large force into Afghanistan, starting the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
• The war ended with Abdur Rahman Khan becoming the ruler of Afghanistan. He agreed to allow British control over Afghanistan’s foreign affairs while maintaining internal control.

Panjdeh Incident:

• In 1884, tensions rose again due to the Panjdeh Incident, where Russian forces seized Afghan territory.
• Britain and Russia were close to war, but the British accepted Russian control of territory north of the Amu Darya.

Boundary Demarcation:

• Between 1885 and 1888, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission set the northern Afghan frontier at the Amu Darya, with Afghanistan losing significant territory.
• The border was established without Afghan input, leading to the loss of areas like Panjdeh.
• In the 1880s, Afghanistan expanded north of Zorkul Lake into areas claimed by Russia, Afghanistan, and China.

British Control in Gilgit:

• In 1891, a diplomatic incident occurred when Russia sent forces to the Wakhan region, leading the British to suspect Russian interference in Kashmir.
• This prompted the Hunza-Nagar Campaign, establishing British control over Hunza and Nagar in Kashmir.

Demarcation Agreement:

• In 1892, British concerns about Russian expansion in the Pamirs led to an investigation and an agreement with Russia to demarcate the rest of the border.
• This process was completed in 1895, further defining the limits of British and Russian influence in the region.

Expansion of the Great Game

Shift to East Asia:

• By the 1890s, the Central Asian khanates of Khiva, Bukhara, and Kokand had fallen under Russian control, becoming vassal states. With Central Asia secured, the Great Game shifted focus eastward to China, Mongolia, and Tibet.

British Invasion of Lhasa:

• In 1904, the British invaded Lhasa as a pre-emptive measure against perceived Russian threats, particularly following secret meetings between the 13th Dalai Lama’s envoy and Tsar Nicholas II.
• The Dalai Lama fled into exile, seeking refuge in China and Mongolia.

Russian Weakness and British Concerns:

• The British were apprehensive about a potential Russian invasion of India. However, Russia, having suffered a humiliating defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War and weakened by internal strife, was not in a position to challenge Britain militarily.

Qing Dynasty’s Decline:

• China, under the Qing Dynasty, was in a state of decline. The Manchus, the ruling ethnic group, had led the Empire into a period of decadence, internal conflict, and an inability to adapt to changing global conditions.
• Natural disasters, famines, and internal rebellions further weakened China, making it susceptible to foreign powers. In the late 19th century, Japan and other Great Powers easily extracted trade and territorial concessions from China, humiliating the once-mighty Manchus.
• The defeat by Japan highlighted the potential for an Asian nation using Western technology and industrial methods to overcome a European power, a lesson not lost on Russian military planners.

Russian Interest in Qing Reforms:

• In 1906, Tsar Nicholas II dispatched a secret agent to China to gather intelligence on the Qing Dynasty’s efforts at reform and modernization.

End of the Great Game: The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907

Context and Concerns:

• As World War I approached, both the British and Russian Empires were increasingly concerned about the rising power of the unified German Empire, especially its activities in the Middle East, such as the ambitious Baghdad Railway project.

Resolution of Conflicts:

• Britain and Russia decided to resolve their long-standing disputes in Asia to present a united front against German expansion.
• The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 marked the end of the classic period of the Great Game.

Key Provisions of the Agreement:

• Afghanistan: The Russians acknowledged British control over Afghan politics, with the understanding that Britain would not change the Afghan regime. All Russian political dealings with Afghanistan would be conducted through the British.
• Persia: Persia was divided into three zones: a British zone in the south, a Russian zone in the north, and a neutral buffer zone in between.
• Tibet: Both powers agreed to maintain the territorial integrity of Tibet and to manage relations with Lhasa exclusively through China, the suzerain power.

A Less Intense British-Soviet Rivalry

The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 disrupted existing treaties, marking the beginning of a new phase in the Great Game.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

• The assassination of ruler Habibullah Khan led to the Third Anglo-Afghan War.
• His successor Amanullah Khan declared full independence and attacked British India’s northern frontier.
• The conflict ended in a stalemate, resolved by the Rawalpindi Agreement of 1919, allowing Afghanistan to regain control over its foreign affairs.

Treaty of Friendship (1921):

• In May 1921, Afghanistan signed a Treaty of Friendship with the Russian Soviet Republic.
• The Soviets provided cash, technology, and military equipment to Amanullah Khan.
• This marked a decline in British influence in Afghanistan.

Shifting Influences:

• Despite Soviet support, relations between Afghanistan and the Soviets were complex.
• Many Afghans wanted to regain control over Merv and Panjdeh, areas of past contention.
• The Soviets aimed to gain more from the friendship treaty than Amanullah was willing to offer.

British Response:

• The UK responded with minor sanctions and diplomatic slights, concerned about losing influence.
• Amanullah’s government aimed to unite all Pashtun-speaking groups across the Durand Line (the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan).

Amanullah's Reforms and Abdication:

• In 1923, Amanullah declared himself padshah(“emperor”) and offered refuge to Muslims fleeing the Soviet Union and Indian nationalists exiled from British India.
• However, his reform efforts were not enough to strengthen the Afghan army quickly.
• Under pressure, Amanullah abdicated in 1928.

Rise of Mohammed Nadir Shah:

• Mohammed Nadir Shah emerged as a key figure during the crisis, ruling from 1929 to 1933.
• Both the Soviets and the British exploited the situation to their advantage.
• The Soviets received aid to deal with Uzbek rebellions in 1930 and 1931, while the British helped Afghanistan establish a 40,000-man professional army.

Temporary Alignment during World War II:

• With the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, British and Soviet interests temporarily aligned.
• Both governments pressured Afghanistan to expel a large German non-diplomatic contingent suspected of espionage, which Afghanistan complied with immediately.

Post World War II and the Cold War:

• After World War II, a new geopolitical era emerged with the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers with significant economic and political differences.
• The post-war, post-colonial period, marked by the legacy of the Great Game, led to sustained political and military tension, known as the Cold War or “Great Game II.”
• The decolonization of the British Empire was a focal point of Cold War evolution, with Britain’s withdrawal altering inter-Asian geopolitics.
• This shift contributed to conflicts such as the Arab-Israeli conflict, the 1953 Iranian coup d’état, and the 1958 Iraqi Revolution.
• Similar to the British experience in the 19th century, the Soviet Union faced challenges in Afghanistan, culminating in their withdrawal in 1988 from the “graveyard of empires.”