The Russian Revolution of 1917-21 | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Russian Revolution: A Shift from Monarchy to Communism

Stages of the Revolution

February Revolution:

• The February Revolution (March in the Gregorian calendar, as Russia was still using the Julian calendar at the time) led to the overthrow of the Russian monarchy. This uprising dismantled the Tsarist regime and paved the way for a Provisional Government.
• The Provisional Government, however, struggled to address the pressing issues facing the country, setting the stage for further unrest.

October Revolution:

• By October, the Provisional Government had failed to improve conditions any better than the Tsar had. This failure prompted another uprising, known as the October Revolution.
• The October Revolution resulted in the Bolsheviks seizing power and establishing the first Communist government in history, transforming Russia into the world’s first communist country.

Thus, the Russian Revolution of 1917 was a crucial turning point that shifted Russia from a monarchy to a communist regime, significantly impacting the course of world history.

Background and Causes of the 1917 Revolutions in Russia

Lack of Leadership by Tsar Nicholas II:

• By the early 1900s, Russian society was deeply divided, and Tsar Nicholas II was disconnected from his people.
• Ascending to the throne in 1894 after his father's death, Nicholas II lacked the leadership skills and desire to rule.
• He was mild-mannered and appeared weak, avoiding direct involvement in public opposition.
• Nicholas ordered security forces to deal with problems, often leading to heavy-handed responses that fueled public resentment.

Revolution of 1905:

• The Revolution of 1905 was a widespread wave of political and social unrest across the Russian Empire, involving worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies.
• It resulted in the establishment of a limited constitutional monarchy, the State Duma, and the Russian Constitution of 1906.
• In 1905, Nicholas II's perceived indifference and brutality were highlighted during events like Bloody Sunday.
• On January 9, a peaceful crowd in St. Petersburg was fired upon by police, leading to widespread outrage and demonstrations across Russia.

The Russian Constitution and Duma:

• Nicholas II's chance to regain respect was lost as Russia faced disasters and political failures, including defeat in the Russo-Japanese War.
• The Duma, a parliament, was created after the October Manifesto on October 17, 1905, which promised civil liberties and the establishment of the Duma.
• The Duma became a source of conflict for Nicholas, who dissolved it repeatedly to maintain control.
• The First Duma (1906) was rigged to favor landowners and middle classes but made demands like estate confiscation and democratic reforms.
• The Second Duma (1907) faced the same fate, leading Nicholas to change the voting system to exclude peasants and workers.
• The Third Duma (1907-12) and Fourth Duma (1912-17) were more conservative and had limited power, as the Tsar controlled ministers and the secret police.

Economic and Social Factors:

• Rapid industrialization created a new, discontented proletariat, with poor living conditions leading to increased strikes and protests.
• Peasants, despite being emancipated from serfdom, resented redemption payments and sought ownership of the land they worked.
• World War I exacerbated discontent, with conscription and demands for war supplies causing labor riots and strikes.
• The war also caused discontent among soldiers, who turned against the Tsar as officers loyal to him were replaced by discontented conscripts.

Political Issues:

• Tsar Nicholas II maintained a strict authoritarian regime, believing in his Divine Right to rule and resisting progressive reforms.
• Despite some concessions after 1905, such as the establishment of the Duma, Nicholas limited civil rights to preserve his authority.
• Public demand for democratic participation grew, fueled by Enlightenment ideals and opposition to autocracy.
• The Bloody Sunday massacre in 1905 intensified dissatisfaction, leading to a general strike and the October Manifesto.

Factors Related to World War I:

• Initially, war was seen as a way to unite the Russian Empire and restore its prestige after the Russo-Japanese War.
• However, as the war continued with heavy losses, public enthusiasm waned, and discontent grew.
• Military defeats and poor organization during the war undermined the monarchy and society.
• In August 1915, Nicholas II made the mistake of becoming Supreme Commander, worsening the situation with tactical blunders and high casualties.
• By January 1917, various groups, including the aristocracy, Duma, industrialists, and army, turned against Nicholas, believing his removal would prevent a larger revolution.

The Two Revolutions: February/March and October/November 1917

The revolutions in Russia are still referred to as the February and October Revolutions because, at the time, Russia was using the old Julian calendar, which was 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar used by most of Europe. Russia switched to the Gregorian calendar in 1918. The events known as the February Revolution in Russia actually began on February 23, 1917, in the Julian calendar, which corresponds to March 8 in the Gregorian calendar. When the Bolsheviks seized power on October 25, 1917 (Julian), it was November 7 in the Gregorian calendar.

The February 1917 Revolution

• The February Revolution occurred against the backdrop of significant military failures during World War I (1914–1918), which had left much of the Russian army in a state of mutiny. The revolution was centered in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg).
• On February 23, 1917, women workers, along with other workers, began to protest in the streets of Petrograd. An estimated 90,000 women marched, chanting slogans like “Bread,” “Down With the Autocracy!” and “Stop the War!” These women were exhausted, hungry, and angry, working long hours in poor conditions to support their families while their husbands and fathers fought in the war. They were demanding change.
• On the following day, over 150,000 men and women joined the protests, and by February 25, Petrograd was effectively shut down.

Violence and Army Mutiny:

• In response to the unrest, Tsar Nicholas II, who was away with his troops, ordered Petrograd’s military commander on February 25 to suppress the riots by the next day. However, as the military attempted to carry out the Tsar’s orders, some troops opened fire on the crowds on February 26.But the local guard regiment quickly fell into disarray, with many soldiers sympathizing more with the crowds than with the Tsar. The next day, over 80,000 troops mutinied, joining the crowds and often fighting against the police.

The Duma and the Petrograd Soviet:

• During this tumultuous period, two political groups recognized the significance of the events and began to deliberate on how to respond. The Duma, the state legislature, was in session but under orders from the Tsar to disband. Nevertheless, the Duma continued to meet in secret and concluded that the unrest would not subside as long as Nicholas II remained in power.At the same time, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, an organization of revolutionary workers and soldiers dominated by the Menshevik Party, convened on February 27. They called for a full-scale revolution and the end of the monarchy.

The Tsar’s Abdication:

• Despite the mutinies, there was no consensus on completely dismantling the monarchy. Many believed Nicholas II should abdicate in favor of his sickly thirteen-year-old son, Alexis. This would allow a regent to rule until Alexis came of age. Thus, both the Duma and military leaders pressured the Tsar to resign.On March 2, Nicholas II abdicated, but surprisingly, he did so in favor of his brother Michael, not his son, believing Alexis was too weak to be Tsar. This decision backfired as Michael refused the throne, leading to the end of the Russian monarchy.In response, leading Duma members assumed control as the provisional government, meant to last until a Constituent Assembly could be elected to decide Russia’s future government.

Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet:

• Out of the chaos, two competing groups emerged to claim leadership of Russia. The first group consisted of former Duma members, while the second was the Petrograd Soviet, representing workers and soldiers. Most expected the autocratic tsarist system to be replaced by a democratic republic with an elected parliament.
• The Duma, struggling for control, established a primarily liberal provisional government. However, this new government faced the same overwhelming problems that had plagued the Tsar. Although recognized as the legitimate government by other countries, the Petrograd Soviet held significant power and had stronger connections with regional authorities across the country.The Petrograd Soviet, essentially a labor union of soldiers and factory workers, was dominated by Mensheviks and favored more radical changes than the provisional government. 
• Eventually, the Duma members formed the Provisional Government, which officially ran the country, while the Soviet allowed this arrangement, believing that Russia was not ready for a complete socialist revolution.Despite their differences, the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet had to cooperate out of necessity. They coordinated on major decisions, with Alexander Kerensky, a lawyer, acting as a liaison between the two groups. 
• He would later become the Russian minister of justice, minister of war, and prime minister of the provisional government.This period of dual power saw the Provisional Government holding state authority while the national network of Soviets, led by socialists, had the allegiance of the lower classes and the political left. Frequent mutinies, protests, and strikes characterized this chaotic time. The Bolsheviks transformed workers’ militias into the Red Guards (later the Red Army), exerting substantial control over them.

Actions of the Provisional Government:

In the weeks following the February Revolution, the Provisional Government took several actions:

• It abolished the death penalty.
• Granted amnesty to all political prisoners and those in exile.
• Ended religious and ethnic discrimination.
• Granted civil liberties.

However, it did not address key issues such as ending the war, land reform, or improving the quality of life for the Russian people. The Provisional Government believed that Russia should honor its commitments to its allies in World War I and continue fighting.As various political groups competed for power, the provisional government and the Petrograd Soviet, despite their disagreements, managed to work together. Other rival political parties also developed cooperative attitudes and worked with each other. The arrival of Lenin in Russia in April 1917, however, dramatically changed the situation.

The Nature of the February Revolution: Organized or Spontaneous?

The question of whether the February Revolution was organized or spontaneous has been debated by historians:

Led by the Elite:

• Some historians argue that a conspiracy among the elite, including nobles, Duma members, and generals, forced Nicholas to abdicate to prevent a mass revolution.

Leaderless and Spontaneous:

• Others believe the February Revolution was a leaderless and spontaneous uprising from below, with the masses' actions being decisive and causing panic among the elite. They contend that without the crowds in the streets, the elite would not have acted.

Revolution from Below but Not Spontaneous:

• Soviet historians agree it was a revolution from below but argue it was not spontaneous. They contend that the Bolsheviks played a crucial role in organizing strikes and demonstrations.

Economic Considerations Over Politics:

• Many historians emphasize that workers were driven by economic concerns rather than political motives, seeking better conditions, higher wages, and control over their lives. The revolution was seen as a desperate outburst to secure basic material needs and a decent standard of living.

Lenin and the Bolsheviks

Lenin’s Return to Russia:

• During the February Revolution, Vladimir Lenin was in exile in Switzerland. When the Provisional Government allowed political exiles to return, the German government facilitated Lenin’s return from Zurich to Russia in spring 1917, likely intending to destabilize Russia.
• Lenin arrived in Petrograd on April 3, 1917, to a warm welcome from a large crowd.
• However, he surprised them by criticizing both the provisional government and the Petrograd Soviet, emphasizing the ongoing war and the lack of essential needs like bread and land.
• From his return until late October 1917, Lenin focused on bringing Russia under Bolshevik control as swiftly as possible.
• Initially, Lenin's radical stance alienated many Socialists in Petrograd. Members of the Petrograd Soviet and even some within his own party dismissed him as too extreme.

The April Theses:

• After arriving in Petrograd, Lenin called for the overthrow of the Provisional Government. His ideas, published in the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda on April 7, became known as the April Theses, a set of 10 directives primarily aimed at Bolsheviks.
• While the dominant Socialists viewed the February Revolution as a bourgeois uprising and supported the Provisional Government, Lenin saw it differently. He believed the Provisional Government and the Soviet represented conflicting social classes in a struggle that could not continue indefinitely.
• Lenin's April Theses urged the Bolsheviks to withdraw support from the Provisional Government, call for an immediate end to World War I, and distribute land to the peasants. He envisioned the Bolshevik Party organizing workers, soldiers, and peasants to strengthen the Soviets and eventually seize power.
• The theses also advocated for nationalization of banks and Soviet control over production and distribution of goods.
• Initially, Lenin's proposals were rejected by Social Democrats and even by a Bolshevik committee. While Pravda published the theses, they were presented as Lenin's personal opinions.

“All Power to the Soviets”:

• Lenin and his supporters defined their movement with the slogan “All power to the Soviets” to rally the masses against the provisional government. He believed he could incite a new revolution through large street demonstrations, despite the Soviets being largely under Menshevik control at the time.
• During the Bolshevik’s seventh all-Russian conference in May, the theses were adopted as the party’s program, along with the slogan “All Power to the Soviets.” Despite some reservations, the ideas in the theses gained popularity among Petrograd’s workers and soldiers, who attempted to force the Soviet to take power in July using Bolshevik slogans.
• It wasn’t until October that Lenin’s party was able to implement its program and seize power from the Provisional Government in the name of the Soviets.

Failed Early Coup Attempts:

• From his return to Russia, Lenin aimed to seize power for the Bolsheviks. The first attempt occurred in late April amid a dispute between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet over Russia’s involvement in World War I.
• The Bolsheviks tried to rally military personnel against the Provisional Government, but no coup materialized from these demonstrations.
• Throughout spring and summer, the Bolsheviks made several more attempts to incite a second revolution, but their failures highlighted a lack of support and made it clear to Lenin that a more organized approach was necessary.

The Bolsheviks and the Military:

• Lenin identified the Provisional Government's reluctance to withdraw Russia from World War I as a weakness to exploit. After years of losses and defeats, the army was ready to return home and on the brink of revolt.
• He called for an immediate exit from the war, even at the cost of heavy reparations and territorial losses. This stance garnered support from the armed forces, crucial for his eventual takeover. Lenin launched a propaganda campaign targeting troops still at the front.

Russia’s Final War Offensive in 1917:

• In June, Minister of War Alexander Kerensky ordered a renewed offensive along the Austrian front in World War I. Before the offensive, he visited the front lines, delivering motivational speeches to the troops.
• The Russian troops initially made progress, capturing prisoners, but soon faced German reinforcements and retreated in panic. The operation failed completely, weakening Kerensky politically.
• Seizing the opportunity, Lenin intensified his efforts to mobilize the Russian populace and awaited the right moment for an armed uprising.

The July Putsch (July Days):

• On July 3, 1917, a large demonstration of workers, soldiers, and sailors marched on the Tauride Palace, where both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet were meeting. They demanded that the Soviet take power, but the members refused to accept this responsibility.
• The government responded by bringing loyal troops from the front to restore order and accused the Bolsheviks of attempting to incite an uprising. They falsely reported that Lenin was a German spy, leading to a rapid decline in the Bolsheviks' popularity.
• In the aftermath, Lenin fled to Finland, and other Bolshevik leaders were arrested. Approximately 400 people were killed during the violence, and Prime Minister Prince Lvov of the Provisional Government resigned, shocked by the July Days. Kerensky was promoted to prime minister for his effectiveness in neutralizing the Bolsheviks.
• The failure of the July Putsch made Lenin realize that it was premature to launch a full-scale uprising and that he could not rely solely on manipulating crowds of demonstrators to carry out a revolution.
• The July Putsch, as it became known, was a setback for the Bolsheviks on multiple fronts. The failed coup made them appear reckless and incompetent, and the accusations of collusion with Germany further tarnished their reputation, especially among the military.
• Lenin struggled to counter these charges effectively. Meanwhile, Kerensky and the Provisional Government experienced a brief boost in popularity.
• Most damaging for the Bolsheviks was the imprisonment of many of their leaders, including the crucial figure Leon Trotsky, and Lenin's retreat into hiding. This made communication and planning difficult for the party.

The Kornilov Affair:

• In July 1917, Prime Minister Kerensky appointed General Kornilov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. However, Kerensky soon grew suspicious that Kornilov was plotting to establish a military dictatorship, leading to mutual distrust between them.
• As tensions escalated, Kerensky publicly accused Kornilov of treason, believing he was orchestrating a coup to oust him. Kornilov, infuriated by the accusation, found himself at odds with Kerensky.
• Panic-stricken, Kerensky sought assistance from the Bolsheviks to thwart a military coup. Ultimately, no military coup materialized.

Repercussions of the Kornilov Affair:

• The Kornilov Affair weakened Kerensky and provided Lenin with a crucial opportunity. The incident had significant repercussions that hastened the downfall of the Provisional Government.
• It undermined Kerensky’s credibility within the military and portrayed him as foolish and unstable to the broader public.
• The affair bolstered the Bolsheviks, who effectively leveraged the situation to enhance their platform. Additionally, it allowed the Bolsheviks to greatly increase their stockpile of weapons when Kerensky, in a state of panic, requested their assistance.
• Ultimately, the Kornilov Affair set the stage for the Bolsheviks to make a genuine attempt at revolution that autumn.

The October 1917 Revolution

The Red Resurgence:

• In late August and September, the Bolsheviks experienced a surge in strength after their earlier failures. They gained a majority in the Petrograd Soviet on August 31 and achieved a similar victory in the Moscow Soviet on September 5, although they remained a minority nationwide.
• Lenin, fearing arrest after the July events, stayed hidden near the Finnish border. As time passed, he grew increasingly impatient and called for the removal of the Provisional Government. While Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky’s authority weakened, the Provisional Government was moving closer to organizing the Constituent Assembly, which would formally establish a republican government in Russia, with elections scheduled for November 12.
• Lenin understood that once this process commenced, seizing power would be much more challenging while maintaining an appearance of legitimacy.

Internal Opposition:

• Before a revolution could occur, Lenin faced significant internal opposition within his party. Many believed the timing was incorrect, and Lenin had not outlined serious plans for governing the country post-takeover.
• On October 10, shortly after Lenin's return to Petrograd, the Bolshevik Party leadership (Central Committee) convened a crucial meeting. Lenin passionately argued for an immediate uprising against the Provisional Government.
• By the end of the meeting, the committee voted ten to two in favor of revolution, although the exact timing remained undecided.

Final Plans:

• A Second Congress of Soviets was planned for October 25, with the Bolsheviks confident of overwhelming support, having invited only sympathetic delegates.
• To be cautious, the Bolsheviks decided to execute the revolution a day before the Congress and seek its approval afterwards.
• By this time, the Bolsheviks had a makeshift army under the Military Revolutionary Committee, a body of the Petrograd Soviet.
• However, leaders like Lenin were aware of the troops' unreliability, expecting at least the main Petrograd garrison to support them once they saw the Bolsheviks gaining the upper hand.

October 24 and 25:

• On October 24, the first day of the Russian Revolution, Bolshevik troops moved to preassigned positions, systematically occupying key sites across the capital, including telephone and telegraph offices, banks, railroad stations, post offices, and major bridges.
• These sites were taken without resistance, as the guards either fled or were disarmed easily. Even the army headquarters was captured without any confrontation.
• By the morning of October 25, Petrograd was largely under Bolshevik control, except for the Winter Palace, where the Provisional Government leaders remained. Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky managed to escape, but by the following day, Bolshevik troops had infiltrated the Winter Palace.

The Second Congress of Soviets:

• Lenin had hoped for a swift conclusion to the revolution to make a grand announcement at the Second All-Russia Congress of Soviets on October 25. However, delays meant the Congress delegates had to wait while Bolshevik forces attempted to remove the Provisional Government from the Winter Palace.
• When the Congress finally convened, the Winter Palace had still not been secured, and only about half of the 650 delegates were dedicated Bolsheviks. Debates and disagreements arose regarding the Bolshevik-led coup and the future leadership of Russia.
• Several key decisions were made during the session. The first was Lenin’s Decree on Peace, expressing Russia's desire to exit World War I, though not declaring a cease-fire.
• Next was the Decree on Land, which socialized all land for redistribution to peasant communes. A new provisional government, the Soviet of the People’s Commissars (SPC), was established to replace the old one until the Constituent Assembly convened in November. Lenin chaired the SPC, and all members were Bolsheviks.
• However, true power resided in the Central Committee of the Communist Party. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was established as a sovereign state.

Lenin and the Bolsheviks Consolidate Control:

• After October 25, 1917, life in Russia initially changed little. There was no widespread panic among the upper classes, and the people of Petrograd were generally indifferent. Few expected the new government to last long, and many did not understand its implications.
• The Bolsheviks were in control of Petrograd due to their coup, but in some areas, the takeover was not smooth. Fighting in Moscow lasted a week before the Soviet gained control, and it was not until the end of November that other cities were subdued.
• Rural areas posed more challenges, and initially, peasants were only lukewarm towards the new government. They preferred the Social Revolutionaries, who also promised land and viewed peasants as the nation’s backbone, while the Bolsheviks appeared to favor industrial workers.
• As other political groups recovered from the shock of the Bolshevik coup, determined opposition was expected. The new government needed to extricate Russia from the war, repair the shattered economy, and fulfill promises of land and food for peasants and workers.

Coup or Mass Insurrection? The Official Soviet Interpretation

The Soviet view held that the Bolsheviks were forced to use violence to defend the revolution against external and internal threats. This interpretation emphasizes the role of external enemies, such as the Allied intervention and the White Army, in provoking a violent response from the Bolsheviks. Soviet historians argue that the Bolsheviks had no choice but to resort to violence to protect the gains of the revolution and ensure its survival.

The War with Germany

The next pressing problem for the Bolshevik government was how to withdraw from World War I. An armistice between Russia and the Central Powers had been agreed upon in December 1917, but long negotiations followed during which Leon Trotsky tried, without success, to persuade the Germans to moderate their demands.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in March 1918, was a harsh settlement for Russia. The key points of the treaty included:

• Russia lost significant territories, including Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia, and Finland.
• These losses accounted for:
• One-third of Russia's farming land
• One-third of its population
• Two-thirds of its coal mines
• Half of its heavy industry

The treaty was widely condemned, and even some of the Bolsheviks, like the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, opposed it. However, Lenin believed the treaty was necessary to buy time for Russia to recover and hoped that the revolution would eventually spread to other countries, allowing Russia to reclaim its lost territories.

Shift of Power:

• In March 1918, as Lenin's representatives were signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolsheviks were also in the process of moving their seat of power from Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) to Moscow. This move was largely symbolic but represented the Bolsheviks' effort to consolidate their power and establish a stronger central authority.

The Drift Towards Violence

Almost immediately after the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks began to rely on coercion to implement their policies and maintain control. This raises the question, debated by historians, of whether Lenin had violent intentions from the outset or was forced into such measures by the challenging circumstances.

View I:

Soviet and Marxist historians downplay the violence and argue that the Bolsheviks had no choice due to the intransigence of their enemies.

• After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Social Revolutionaries (SRs) left Petrograd and set up an alternative government, launching a campaign of terror and assassination before the civil war began.
• Some historians claim that there was no widespread suppression of the opposition press or violence against political opponents in the six months following the Bolshevik Revolution because it was unnecessary.
• The death penalty was even abolished at the end of October, although Lenin found this impractical.
• The members of the provisional government who were arrested were mostly released after promising not to oppose the Bolsheviks.
• Lenin himself stated in November 1917 that the Bolsheviks did not use terror like the French revolutionaries and hoped to avoid it.

Increasing Difficulties:

• However, circumstances became increasingly challenging for the Bolsheviks. By January 1918, there were severe food shortages in major cities like Petrograd and Moscow. Lenin believed that wealthier peasants (kulaks) were hoarding grain in protest against low prices, trying to force the government to raise their payments.
• The new secret police, the Cheka, were tasked with dealing with grain hoarders and speculators. In April 1918, Lenin declared that controlling grain stocks was crucial and that breaches of the rules would be met with harsh punishments, including arrest and execution.After the signing of the humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the loss of Ukraine, a key wheat-producing area, exacerbated the food crisis. The left-wing Social Revolutionaries sought to undermine the treaty and engaged in acts of terror, including the assassination of the German ambassador and a prominent Bolshevik.
• On August 30, 1918, the head of the Petrograd Cheka was assassinated, and later that day, a woman attempted to assassinate Lenin, who was wounded but recovered quickly. These events suggest that it was the dire situation, rather than any inherent ideological motive, that drove Lenin and the Bolsheviks to respond with violence.

Fatal Flaws in Lenin's Reasoning:

• Despite the Bolsheviks' good intentions, Lenin's reasoning was fundamentally flawed in two critical aspects:
• Karl Marx had predicted that the collapse of capitalism would occur in two stages: first, the bourgeois capitalists would overthrow the autocratic monarchy and establish parliamentary democracy. Second, once industrialization was complete, the industrial workers (proletariat) would overthrow the bourgeois capitalists and create a classless society.
• The first stage had occurred with the February Revolution. The Mensheviks believed that the second stage could only happen after Russia was fully industrialized and the proletariat was in the majority.
• However, Lenin argued that in Russia's case, the two revolutions could be successfully combined. This belief motivated his decision to launch the October coup.
• This led to a situation where the Bolsheviks were in power before their most reliable supporters, the industrial workers, had become a large enough class to sustain the regime. As a result, the Bolsheviks were a minority government, heavily reliant on the largest but most self-interested class in Russian society—the peasants.
• Lenin anticipated that a successful revolution in Russia would be part of a broader European or worldwide socialist revolution. He expected that revolutions would soon follow in Central and Western Europe, providing support for the new Soviet government.
• None of this happened, leaving Russia isolated and facing a capitalist Europe that was suspicious of the new regime. Internally and externally, the Bolshevik regime faced pressure from counter-revolutionary forces.
• As law and order appeared to deteriorate and local soviets began to ignore the government's decrees, the Bolsheviks realized that to maintain power and rebuild the country, they would likely have to resort to violence.

View II:

Traditional liberal historians reject the above interpretation, believing that Lenin and Trotsky, though perhaps not all Bolshevik leaders, were committed to using violence and terror from the beginning.

• They argue that Lenin saw terror as an essential part of revolutionary government and was willing to use it preventively, even when there was no active opposition to his rule.
• For example, why did he establish the Cheka early in December 1917 when there was no threat of opposition or foreign intervention?
• In a 1908 essay on the failures of the French revolutionaries, Lenin had written that the main weakness of the proletariat was 'excessive generosity'—it should have exterminated its enemies instead of trying to exert moral influence over them.
• When the death penalty was abolished, Lenin was furious, stating, 'How can you make a revolution without executions?'

The Red Terror:

• Regardless of the Bolsheviks' intentions, it is undeniable that violence and terror became widespread during this period.
• The Red Army was employed to enforce grain requisitioning from peasants suspected of having surpluses.
• Throughout 1918, the Cheka suppressed 245 peasant uprisings.
• Social Revolutionaries and other political opponents were arrested and executed.
• Many of those arrested and executed were not guilty of any specific crime but were labeled 'bourgeois,' a term used to describe landowners, priests, businessmen, employers, army officers, and professionals. They were all considered 'enemies of the people' as part of the government's class war campaign.
• Lenin consolidated his control through brutal methods such as the Gulag, a vast and harsh network of prison camps for criminals and political prisoners.
• One of the most infamous incidents of terror was the murder of ex-Tsar Nicholas and his family.
• In the summer of 1918, they were being held under guard in a house in Ekaterinburg in the Ural Mountains.
• By this time, the civil war was underway, and the Bolsheviks feared that White forces advancing towards Ekaterinburg might rescue the royal family, who could become a rallying point for anti-Bolshevik forces.
• Lenin himself ordered their execution, and in July 1918, the entire family, along with members of their household, were shot by local Cheka officials.

Civil War:

• By April 1918, armed opposition to the Bolsheviks was emerging in various regions, leading to the onset of civil war. The opposition, known as the Whites, was a diverse group comprising Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, ex-tsarist officers, and other factions dissatisfied with Bolshevik rule.
• There was significant discontent in the countryside, where peasants detested the food procurement policies of the government. Even soldiers and workers who had supported the Bolsheviks in 1917 grew resentful of the way the Bolsheviks treated the soviets (elected councils) across Russia.
• One of the Bolshevik slogans had been 'ALL POWER TO THE SOVIETS.' People expected that every town would have its own soviet managing local affairs and industry. Instead, officials known as commissars, appointed by the central government, arrived with Red Guards, ousting Social Revolutionary and Menshevik members from the soviets and leaving only Bolshevik members in control. This led to a centralized dictatorship rather than local control.
• The government's opponents rallied around the slogan 'LONG LIVE THE SOVIETS AND DOWN WITH THE COMMISSARS.' Their common goal was not to restore the Tsar but to establish a democratic government along Western lines.
• In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak, a former commander of the Black Sea Fleet, established a White government. General Denikin commanded a large White army in the Caucasus. The Czechoslovak Legion, comprising about 40,000 men, had seized extensive stretches of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
• This legion was originally made up of prisoners taken by the Russians from the Austro-Hungarian army, who had switched sides after the March Revolution and fought for the Kerensky government against the Germans. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolsheviks allowed them to leave Russia via the Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok. However, the Bolsheviks decided to disarm them to prevent any cooperation with the Allies, who were already showing interest in overthrowing the new Bolshevik government.
• The Czechs resisted fiercely, and their control of the railway was a significant embarrassment for the Bolshevik government.

The Allied Intervention:

• The situation was further complicated by the fact that Russia's allies in World War I intended to support the Whites. They claimed their goal was to establish a government that would continue the war against Germany. The Allies were concerned about the collapse of the Eastern Front, the loss of their Tsarist ally to communism, and the vast amounts of supplies and equipment in Russian ports, which they feared might be seized by the Germans or the Bolsheviks.
• The initial objectives included assisting the Czechoslovak Legion, securing munitions and armaments in Russian ports, and re-establishing the Eastern Front. However, as their intervention continued even after Germany's defeat, it became clear that their aim was to destroy the Bolshevik government, which was now advocating world revolution.
• Troops from the USA, Japan, France, and Britain were sent to Russia. The situation appeared bleak for the Bolsheviks when, in early 1919, Kolchak, whom the Allies intended to place at the head of the next government, advanced towards Moscow, the new capital.
• However, Trotsky, now Commissar for War, had successfully created a well-disciplined Red Army through conscription, including thousands of experienced officers from the old tsarist armies. Kolchak was pushed back, captured, and executed by the Reds. The Czech Legion was defeated. As the White armies began to suffer defeats, the interventionist states lost interest and withdrew their troops. Allied efforts were hindered by divided objectives, war weariness, and a lack of public support.
• These factors, along with the evacuation of the Czechoslovak Legion, compelled the Allies to withdraw in 1920, although Japanese forces occupied parts of Siberia until 1922 and the northern half of Sakhalin until 1925. The Bolsheviks effectively used the Allied intervention and foreign troops to portray their enemies as backed by Western capital.
• The Bolsheviks ultimately emerged victorious, leading to the establishment of the Soviet Union. From the communist perspective, the crucial point was that they had won the civil war, which helped restore the government's prestige after the humiliation of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Political problems were solved decisively 

•  Russia became the world’s first communist state, known as the  Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)  , where power was held solely by the Communist Party. 
•  Lenin faced internal disagreement and criticism within the Communist Party. 
•  In March 1921, Lenin banned  ‘factionalism’  within the Party, allowing discussion but requiring unity once a decision was made. 
•  Those who disagreed with the official party line would be  expelled  . 
•  About one-third of the Party members were purged in 1921, and many resigned, mainly due to opposition to the New Economic Policy (NEP). 
•  Lenin rejected the trade unions’ claim to run industry, stating they must follow the government’s orders and focus on increasing production. 
•  The governing body of the Party, known as the  ‘Politburo’  , acted as the government during the civil war and continued this role afterward. 
•  Although Lenin and the Communist Party had complete control, the  ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’  was not yet realized, nor was there a prospect of the state ‘withering away’. 
•  Lenin justified this by arguing that the working class was too weak and exhausted, requiring the Communist Party to lead on their behalf. 

 Creation of USSR :

•  The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR), established on November 7, 1917, during the October Revolution, was the first communist state. 
•  The first Constitution was adopted in 1918, and on December 28, 1922, a conference approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR. 
•  The Treaty was confirmed by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed on December 30, 1922. 
•  The USSR was recognized by the British Empire on February 1, 1924, and a Soviet Constitution was approved the same year, legitimizing the union. 

 Death of Lenin:

•  Lenin suffered a stroke in May 1922, leading to a gradual decline in his health and ability to participate in government. He had two more strokes and died in January 1924 at the age of 53. 
•  His goal of establishing a fully communist state and the anticipated communist revolutions in other countries were unfinished, leaving the USSR isolated and uncertain. 
•  Lenin had not made clear plans for the government after his death, resulting in an inevitable power struggle. 
•  The Russian Revolution and Communism were unique experiences for Lenin, as Russia had no prior example to follow, unlike China, where Mao guided the path of Communism. 

 Was Lenin an evil?:

•  Lenin remains a controversial figure in history. 
•  After his death, members of the Politburo, especially  Joseph Stalin,  promoted the Lenin cult, presenting themselves as his successors and forbidding criticism of Lenin. 
•  Some historians admire Lenin, seeing him as a great and good man who significantly changed the 20th-century world. 
•  Revisionist historians view him as forced into violent policies and struggling to steer communism towards a peaceful phase. 
•  Others see him as a ruthless dictator paving the way for Stalin's brutality. 
•  Alexander Potresov, a Menshevik, called Lenin an  ‘evil genius’  with a hypnotic effect on people. 
•  Robert Service offers a balanced view, acknowledging Lenin's ruthlessness and vision for a better world, believing in the necessity of the  Dictatorship of the Proletariat  to achieve it. 
•  Service notes the improvement after the NEP, with moderated repression, religious practice, undisturbed peasant customs, and release of economic activities from state ownership. 
•  He suggests Lenin's premature death was a tragedy, preventing the realization of his vision, but his achievements make him a significant figure in history. 
•  Lenin led the October Revolution, founded the USSR, and laid the groundwork for Marxist-Leninism, playing a crucial role in transforming the world. 

 Leninism and Stalinism:

•  Critics argue  Lenin  is responsible for the excesses of Stalin's era, questioning whether Stalin continued Lenin's work or betrayed his vision. 
•  Western historians  during the early Cold War believed Stalin merely continued Lenin’s policies, highlighting Lenin’s role in establishing the one-party system, authoritarian party structures, the Cheka, and diminishing trade union powers. 
•  Revisionist historians  contend there was a fundamental break between Lenin and Stalin, noting Stalin's extreme policies against peasants, initiation of a personality cult, expansion of party bureaucracy, and suppression of dissent, contrasting with Lenin’s practices. 
•  Robert Suny  summarizes Leninism as aimed at empowering working people and abolishing social privileges, but notes Stalin's regime became one of the most oppressive in history, marking a radical shift from Lenin's ideals.

 Positive and Negative Effects of the Russian Revolution 

Impact on Russian:

• Ended autocratic rule.
• Established a socialist government.
• Russia emerged as a major world power.
• Implemented educational reforms.
• Achieved industrial growth and economic development.
• Ensured equal rights for all nationalities.
• Withdrawn from World War I.
• Laid the groundwork for a technologically advanced economy through planning, especially under Stalin.

Impact on the World:

• Spread of communism globally. 
• Increased global tensions, leading to the division of the world into communist and capitalist factions. 
• Strengthened freedom movements and dealt a blow to imperialism. 
• The Russian Revolution initiated a significant ideological conflict internationally, causing fear in capitalist states and confirming suspicions of the revolution's expansionist intentions through the establishment of the Third International. 
• Eventually contributed to the formation of the Soviet Union.