Question of National Language | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Question of National Language

Language Issue in India:

• The language controversy in India intensified when it focused on opposition to Hindi, leading to tensions between Hindi-speaking and non-Hindi-speaking regions.
• The debate was not about having a single national language for all Indians, as the idea that one language was crucial for Indian national identity had been largely rejected by the secular majority of the national leadership.
• India is a multilingual country and will remain so. The national movement had operated through various regional languages, advocating for the replacement of English with regional mother tongues for higher education, administration, and courts.
• Jawaharlal Nehru emphasized in 1937 the importance of provincial languages for education and public work, stating that the masses could only progress culturally and educationally through their own languages.
• The constitution recognized multiple languages as national languages, but a common language for official work was necessary.
• The debate in the Constituent Assembly was between English and Hindi for this purpose.
• The pre-independence leadership had already leaned towards Hindi as the future all-India medium of communication, although English was valued for its role in accessing global knowledge.

Gandhiji’s view on English Language

Gandhiji's Views on English Language:

• In the 1920s, Gandhiji acknowledged English as a language of international commerce, diplomacy, and rich literary and cultural heritage.
• However, he criticized its unnatural dominance in India due to the unequal relationship with the English.
• Gandhiji believed English had drained the nation's energy and created a divide between the educated and the masses.
• He urged educated Indians to free themselves from the foreign medium's influence.
• In 1946, Gandhiji expressed his love for the English language but opposed its inappropriate dominance.
• He recognized English as the global language and supported its place as a second, optional language.

Leader’s stand for Hindi Language

Hindi as the Official Language:

• Hindi, also known as Hindustani, had already played a crucial role during the nationalist struggle, especially during the mass mobilization phase.
• Leaders from non-Hindi-speaking regions accepted Hindi because it was considered the most widely spoken and understood language in India.
• Prominent figures like Lokamanya Tilak, Gandhiji, C. Rajagopalachari, Subhas Bose, and Sardar Patel strongly supported Hindi.
• The Congress Party began using Hindi and provincial languages instead of English in its sessions and political work.
• In 1925, the Congress amended its constitution to conduct proceedings in Hindustani as much as possible, allowing English or provincial languages when necessary.
• The Nehru Report of 1928 reflected a national consensus by proposing Hindustani, written in either Devanagari or Urdu script, as India's common language, while continuing to use English for some time.
• Ultimately, the constitution of free India adopted this stance, replacing Hindustani with Hindi.

Debate over two Questions in Constituent assembly

Hindi or Hindustani replacing English:

• There is a possibility that Hindi or Hindustani could replace English as the primary language in India.
• This shift may occur in the next 15 to 20 years, especially if there is a strong push from the central government and state governments.

Debates

1. Early Debates on Official Language:

• The discussions about the official language were marked by sharp differences and were highly politicized from the start.
• The initial question of whether to use Hindi or Hindustani was resolved, but not without significant conflict.

2. Gandhi and Nehru's Support for Hindustani:

• Both Gandhiji and Nehru advocated for Hindustani, which could be written in either the Devanagari or Urdu script.
• Initially, many Hindi supporters disagreed but eventually accepted Gandhi and Nehru's perspective.

3. Impact of Partition:

• After the announcement of Partition, supporters of Hindi felt emboldened.
• Proponents of Pakistan had claimed Urdu as the language of Muslims and Pakistan, which influenced this shift.

4. Shift in Language Dynamics:

• Supporters of Hindi began to label Urdu as a symbol of secession.
• They demanded that Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, be made the national language.

5. Congress Party Division:

• The demand for Hindi split the Congress party.
• The Congress Legislative Party eventually voted in favor of Hindi over Hindustani by a narrow margin (78 to 77), despite Nehru and Azad's support for Hindustani.
• The Hindi supporters had to compromise, accepting Hindi as the official language rather than the national language.

6. Transition from English to Hindi:

• There was a divide between Hindi and non-Hindi areas regarding the timeline for switching from English to Hindi.
• Hindi areas preferred an immediate switch to Hindi, while non-Hindi areas wanted to retain English for a long, possibly indefinite period.
• Some non-Hindi areas wanted the status quo to continue until a future parliament decided to shift to Hindi.

7. Nehru's Position:

• Nehru advocated for making Hindi the official language, but also supported English continuing as an additional official language.
• He favored a gradual transition to Hindi and encouraged the learning of English due to its contemporary usefulness.

Dominition of Hindi lanuage

Background:

• Hindi was supported as the official language because it was spoken by the largest number of people in India.
• Hindi was understood in most urban areas of northern India, as well as in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Criticism of Hindi:

• Critics argued that Hindi was not as developed as other languages for literature, science, and politics.
• They feared that making Hindi the official language would disadvantage non-Hindi regions, especially South India, in education and job opportunities.
• There was concern that imposing Hindi would lead to the economic and cultural dominance of Hindi-speaking areas over non-Hindi areas.

Compromise in the Constitution:

• The constitution-makers aimed to be fair to all linguistic groups and reached a compromise, though it made the language provisions complicated and confusing.
• Hindi in Devanagari script, along with international numerals, was made the official language.
• English would continue for official purposes until 1965, when it was planned to be replaced by Hindi.
• Hindi was to be introduced gradually, with the aim of becoming the sole official language after 1965.
• Parliament could allow the use of English for specific purposes even after 1965.
• The government was tasked with promoting the spread and development of Hindi, with plans for regular reviews.
• State legislatures would determine their official languages, but the Union's official language would be used for communication between states and the Centre.

Implementation Challenges:

• Implementing the language provisions was difficult, even with the Congress party in power nationwide.
• The issue remained controversial and became more heated over time, although the plan for Hindi to become the sole official language was not challenged for many years.

Weakness of the Hindi protagonists

Background:The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, allowed for the use of Hindi as the official language of the Union government, with English continuing as an associate language. The switch to Hindi was planned for 1965.

Initial Expectations: The framers of the Constitution anticipated that by 1965:

• Proponents of Hindi would address its weaknesses and gain the trust of non-Hindi regions.
• The spread of education would facilitate the growth of Hindi and reduce opposition to it.

Challenges Faced:

• The expansion of education was slower than expected, hindering the spread of Hindi.
• Proponents of Hindi adopted a confrontational approach rather than a gradual and persuasive one, which alienated non-Hindi speakers.
• There was a lack of social science and scientific literature in Hindi, limiting its use in academia and journalism.
• Efforts to standardize Hindi were hampered by attempts to Sanskritize the language, making it less accessible.
• All India Radio's overly Sanskritized Hindi broadcasts further alienated potential listeners.

Nehru's Stance:

• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, a Hindi speaker, supported the transition to Hindi but recognized the need for political consensus and the gradual acceptance of Hindi by non-Hindi regions.
• Nehru's assurances in Parliament aimed to alleviate fears of non-Hindi speakers and emphasized that the decision to adopt Hindi should consider the preferences of non-Hindi speakers.

Official Language Commission:

• In 1956, the Official Language Commission recommended a gradual transition to Hindi, with significant changes expected by 1965.
• Dissenting members from non-Hindi regions argued for the continuation of English, citing a pro-Hindi bias in the Commission.

Presidential Directive and Government Actions:

• In April 1960, the President of India issued a directive supporting the promotion of Hindi while allowing English to continue as an associate language.
• Measures to promote Hindi included establishing the Central Hindi Directorate, training government employees in Hindi, and translating legal texts into Hindi.

Growing Tensions:

• Hindi advocates accused the government of delaying the transition, while non-Hindi groups feared an imposed shift to Hindi.
• The death of Nehru in 1964 heightened concerns among non-Hindi groups about the future of English as an official language.

Legislative Actions:

• The Official Languages Act of 1963 aimed to clarify the status of English but was criticized for its ambiguous language regarding the use of English.
• Non-Hindi groups sought stronger guarantees for the continued use of English, fearing future shifts towards Hindi.

Shift in Non-Hindi Perspectives:

• As tensions rose, some non-Hindi leaders transitioned from advocating for a slower replacement of English to demanding an indefinite continuation of English as the official language.
• Groups like the DMK and C. Rajagopalachari called for constitutional amendments to establish English as the sole official language.

Anti Hindi movement

1965 Agitation Against Hindi in Tamil Nadu:

• As 26 January 1965 approached, fear spread in non-Hindi areas, especially Tamil Nadu, leading to a strong anti-Hindi movement.
• On 17 January, the DMK organized the Madras State Anti-Hindi Conference, calling for 26 January to be observed as a day of mourning.
• Students, worried about their careers and competition with Hindi speakers in all-India services, became active in organizing protests with the slogan: ‘Hindi never, English ever.’
• They also demanded a constitutional amendment.
• The students’ agitation escalated into statewide unrest.
• The Congress leadership, despite controlling both state and central governments, misjudged the movement’s depth and tried to suppress it instead of negotiating.
• This led to widespread rioting and violence in early February, causing significant destruction of railways and Union property.
• The anti-Hindi sentiment was so strong that some Tamil youth, including four students, committed self-immolation in protest against the official language policy.
• Two Tamil ministers, C. Subramaniam and Alagesan, resigned from the Union cabinet.
• The agitation lasted for about two months, resulting in over sixty deaths due to police firings.
• Indira Gandhi, then Minister for Information and Broadcasting, was the only prominent central leader to show concern for the agitators. During the peak of the agitation, she flew to Madras, expressed sympathy for the agitators, and became the first northern leader, after Nehru, to gain the trust of the aggrieved Tamils and the people of South India.
• Efforts by the Jan Sangh and the Samyukta Socialist Party (SSP) to organize a counter-agitation in Hindi areas against English did not receive much public support.

Outcomes of Anti Hindi Movement

• The agitation prompted both the Madras and Union governments, along with the Congress party, to reconsider their positions.
• They chose to align with the strong public sentiment in the South, altering their policy to meet the major demands of the protesters.
• The Congress Working Committee announced a series of measures intended to form the basis for central legislation, leading to the withdrawal of the Hindi agitation.
• However, the enactment was postponed due to the Indo-Pak war of 1965, which quelled dissent across the country.
• Following the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in January 1966, Indira Gandhi assumed the role of prime minister.
• Having already gained the trust of the people in the South, there was a belief that a sincere effort would be made to address the long-standing dispute.
• Other favorable developments included the Jan Sangh softening its anti-English stance and the SSP agreeing to the core features of the 1965 agreement.
• Despite economic challenges and a decline in Congress's parliamentary strength after the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi introduced the bill to amend the 1963 Official Language Act on November 27.
• The Lok Sabha passed the bill on December 16, 1967, with a vote of 205 to 41.
• This Act provided clear legal support for Jawaharlal Nehru’s assurances made in September 1959.
• It stipulated that English would continue as an associate language alongside Hindi for official work at the Centre and for communication between the Centre and non-Hindi states, as long as the non-Hindi states desired it, granting them full veto powers.
• A policy of virtually indefinite bilingualism was adopted.
• Parliament also approved a resolution stating that public service examinations would be conducted in Hindi, English, and all regional languages, with the requirement that candidates have additional knowledge of Hindi or English.
• The states were to implement a three-language formula, wherein in non-Hindi areas, the mother tongue, Hindi, and English or another national language would be taught in schools, while in Hindi areas, a non-Hindi language, preferably a southern language, would be a compulsory subject.
• In July 1967, the Government of India took another significant step regarding the language issue based on the 1966 Education Commission report.
• It announced that Indian languages would eventually become the medium of instruction for all subjects at the university level, although the timeline for this transition would be determined by each university according to its convenience.

Conclusion

• After much debate, agitation, and compromise, India found a widely accepted solution to the official and link language issue.
• Since 1967, this problem has faded from the political scene, showcasing the Indian political system's ability to address contentious issues democratically and promote national unity.
• The language issue, which could have threatened the country's unity, was resolved through negotiations and compromise, with contributions from both the national leadership and opposition parties.
• The DMK, initially fueled by the language issue, played a role in calming political tensions in Tamil Nadu.
• Political problem-solving in a complex nation like India is an ongoing process. Hindi has been expanding in non-Hindi areas through various means, and its use as an official language is increasing, although English remains dominant.
• English, as a second language, is rapidly spreading across the country, evidenced by the rise of private English-medium schools. Both English and Hindi are expected to grow as link languages, alongside the increasing prominence of regional languages.
• English is likely to thrive as a language of communication among the intelligentsia, as a library language, and as a second language in universities. Hindi, however, has yet to establish itself in these roles.
• The goal of making Hindi the link language remains, but the aggressive promotion of Hindi has delayed this possibility.